Dear Doctors,

DigiNerve is constantly evolving to enhance your experience while you’re on your journey to becoming a Top Doc. We are excited to bring you the latest updates with our commitment to ensure a seamless journey on the go.

Let’s look at the November edition of our monthly newsletter DN Buzz.

CONTENT UPDATES

POSTGRAD COURSE UPDATES

Courses

Updates (Additions in the Course)

Medicine MD

The following four new video lectures have been added to the course: Diagnostic Approach to Lymphadenopathy (by Dr. Manoranjan Mahapatra) Section: Hematology, Module: Short Case Discussion Rheumatoid Arthritis (by Dr. Alpana Parmar) Section: Rheumatology, Module: Short Case Discussion Psoriasis (by Dr. Sujata Sen Gupta) Section: Dermatology, Module: Clinical Scenarios Anti-tubercular Drugs (by Dr. Sumalya Sen) Section: Pharmacotherapeutics, Module: Special Situations New Chat Show “A Case-based Discussion on Stroke in Young” has been uploaded to the course on the app.

EXAM PREP COURSE UPDATES

Course	Updates (Additions in the Course)
Cracking MRCOG Part 1- Comprehensive Course	A new module named “Green-top Guidelines” has been added to the courses. The module includes videos on the following three topics: General Considerations Operative Gynecology Operative Obstetrics
Cracking MRCOG Part 2- Comprehensive Course

PROFESSIONAL COURSE UPDATES

Courses	Updates (Additions in the Course)
Cosmetic Botulinum Toxin Simplified	Subscribers can now opt for hands-on training at Nirmal Skin and Hair Clinic in Bangalore

 

TECHNOLOGY UPDATES

With advanced performance and high-end functionality, the DigiNerve app has launched a new Sign-up Journey for both Android and iOS users to enhance the user experience.

 

Update Your DigiNerve App for Better Experience.

The National Medical Commission (NMC) has achieved the coveted World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) Recognition Status for a tenure of 10 years. This is a prestigious achievement for India’s medical education. This esteemed award proves NMC’s steadfast dedication to the highest standards in medical education and accreditation.

The WFME recognition will now enable Indian medical graduates to pursue postgraduate training and practice in other countries that require WFME recognition, such as Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand.

The World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) is a global organization dedicated to raising the standard of medical education all over the world. The WFME accreditation programme is crucial in ensuring that medical institutions uphold and adhere to the highest levels of global education and training standards.

Dr. Yogender Malik, Member of the Ethics and Medical Registration Board and Head Media Division at NMC, on this remarkable achievement, said, “WFME’s recognition underscores that the quality of medical education in India adheres to global standards. This accolade empowers our students with the opportunity to pursue their careers anywhere in the world, while also making India an attractive destination for international students due to our globally recognized standards.”

Under this accreditation, all the 706 existing medical colleges in India will be considered WFME accredited, and the new colleges being set up in the coming 10 years will also be considered as WFME accredited. This will also benefit NMC in enhancing the quality and standards of Indian medical education by aligning them with global benchmarks. This will facilitate academic collaborations and promote continuous improvement and innovation in medical education.

Now NMC being WFME accredited has opened the doors for all the medical students for ECFMG and USMLE. All Indian students will become eligible to apply for the Education Commission on Foreign Medical Graduates and United States Medical Licensing Examination.

The National Medical Council, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in a press release dated 20th September 2023 has announced this remarkable update.

Pathology is a medical specialty that deals with the causes and nature of disease. By delivering early and accurate diagnoses, which are crucial for successful treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in patient care.

A pathologist works with the causes and characteristics of illness and employs information acquired from the laboratory application of the biological, chemical, and physical sciences to aid in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. For the diagnosis and monitoring of illness, this specialist uses data obtained from microscopic inspection of tissue samples, cells, and bodily fluids as well as from clinical laboratory testing on bodily fluids and secretions. By delivering early and accurate diagnoses, which are crucial for successful treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in patient care.

If you are good at going with a microscope as your friend than a stethoscope, then pathology is a great option to choose as a specialty. This specialty is more of working behind the scenes sitting for long hours diagnosing rather than directly dealing with the patients.

Steps for Becoming a Pathologist

• Complete your 12th standard in the Science stream with a minimum of 55% aggregate.
• Then you have two options for your undergraduate degree, either you can go with an MBBS undergraduate degree, or you can go with a B.Sc. in Pathology. The former is more into medicine side while the latter is a basic health and allied sciences degree. Depending on your preference and educational qualification, you can choose between both. To pursue an MBBS degree, you must crack the NEET-UG entrance examination with a competitive score. You can opt for a government or private college for any of the undergraduate courses as per your preference and score. Always seek proper guidance before choosing a medical college.

Must Read: Things to know before choosing a medical college.

• After completing graduation, you must complete your postgraduation in pathology. If you did an MBBS, then go with an MD in Pathology degree and if you opted for BSc then go with an MSc Pathology degree. To pursue MD Pathology, you need to score high in the NEET-PG/INI-CET and for M.Sc. Pathology, you need to follow the admission procedure of the particular college.
• Then after completing postgraduation, you need to gain experience, then you have the option to pursue fellowship courses in various pathology subspecialities. You can also opt for a Ph.D. programme.

Apart from a degree, you also have the option to pursue a Diploma in Pathology or relevant certification courses.

Top Medical Colleges to Pursue MD Pathology in India

1. AIIMS, Delhi
2. Christian Medical College, Vellore
3. Grant Government Medical College, Mumbai
4. AFMC, Pune
5. JIPMER, Puducherry
6. Kasturba Medical College, Manipal
7. IPGME&R and SSKM Hospital, Kolkata
8. KGMU, Lucknow
9. St. John’s Medical College, Bangalore
10. Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi
11. Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
12. VMMC, New Delhi

Pathologists employ a wide range of instruments and methods to investigate illness, such as:

• Microscopical analysis of tissue samples: Pathologists use microscopes to analyse tiny slices of tissue in search of anomalies that might be signs of illness.
• Testing in the laboratory: Pathologists do several tests in the lab on tissues and bodily fluids to determine the concentrations of various chemicals, including hormones, enzymes, and proteins. These examinations can support illness diagnosis, track disease development, and evaluate therapy effectiveness.
• Autopsies: Pathologists examine a deceased person’s body after death to ascertain the cause of death and learn more about any ailments they may have had.

List of Pathology Subspecialities

Pathology is a broad specialty that encompasses a variety of subspecialties, including:

• Transfusion Medicine
• Chemical Pathology
• Cytopathology
• Dermatopathology
• Histopathology
• Forensic Pathology
• Hematopathology/Hematology
• Molecular Genetic Pathology
• Neuropathology
• Pediatric Pathology
• Pulmonary Pathology
• Renal Pathology
• Surgical Pathology
• Clinical Pathology
• Molecular Pathology

Skills Required for Becoming a Pathologist

A skilled pathologist should be well-versed in the following:

Establish a diagnosis for common and difficult clinical issues using histopathology (surgical pathology) and cytopathology specimens, blood and bone marrow examinations, and different laboratory medicine tests (clinical pathology, Blood Banking (Transfusion Medicine), and clinical biochemistry.

Construct correlations between clinical and laboratory data to ensure that clinical disease symptoms can be explained.

Suggest the proper samples and tests to conduct to reach a diagnosis in a difficult case.

Compare pathology results from an autopsy with those from the clinic, the causes of disease-related deaths, and their miscorrelations (other than isolated metabolic causes).

Should be competent to instruct pathology to nursing students, postgraduates, undergraduates, and paramedical professionals, including lab staff.

Be able to work as a team, cultivate a cooperative attitude among coworkers, and communicate with patients, clinicians, and other coworkers to offer the best diagnostic or opinion.

Always uphold ethical values, maintain an appropriate demeanour in interactions with patients, family members, and other medical professionals, and respect the patient’s rights, including access to information and a second opinion.

Capable of carrying out standard procedures in a pathology lab, such as grossing specimens, processing, slicing paraffin and frozen sections, and staining.

Capable of routinely performing non-invasive outpatient procedures like venipuncture, finger pricks, fine needle aspirations of superficial lumps, and bone marrow aspirates in order to collect specimens, and to give appropriate assistance to colleagues performing invasive procedures like a biopsy or an imaging-guided biopsy.

Salary and Scope of Pathologist

Pathology is a highly promising job as no diagnosis is complete without pathology. Pathologists are in great demand, and the job outlook for them is predicted to improve over the coming ten years at a faster-than-average rate. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre.

Pathologists have a highly diverse range of employment options and several prospects for progression. Anatomic pathology, clinical pathology, and forensic pathology are just a few examples of the areas of pathology in which pathologists might specialise.

For those with a passion for science and medicine, attention to detail, and strong analytical abilities, pathology is a good speciality. Additionally, pathologists must be able to operate both alone and collaboratively. On average, a pathologist earns 50K to 80K per month and it varies depending on the area of employment.

The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Best Books for Studying Pathology

• Prof Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology
• Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology by Ramadas Nayak and Sharda Rai
• Rapid Review of Hematology by Ramadas Nayak and Sharda Rai
• Review of Pathology and Genetics by Gobind Rai Garg and Sparsh Gupta
• Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Diseases by Vinay Kumar, Abul K. Abbas, and Jon C. Aster
• Fundamentals of Pathology by Husain A. Sattar
• Surgical Pathology of the GI Tract, Liver, Biliary Tract and Pancreas
• Cytopathology Review by Fang Fan and Ivan Danjanov
• Gray’s Diagnostic Cytopathology
• Rosai and Ackerman’s Surgical Pathology
• Atlas and Text of Haematology by Tejinder Singh
• Orell’s Atlas of Aspiration Cytology
• Lever’s Dermatopathology

By offering precise and fast diagnoses, which are necessary for efficient treatment, pathologists play a crucial role in the healthcare industry. They also strive to create innovative diagnostic methods and disease-specific therapies.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What should I do after 12th to become a Pathologist?

Ans. After completing the 12th standard, either you can go with an MBBS undergraduate degree, or you can go with a B.Sc. in Pathology. The former is more into medicine side while the latter is a basic health and allied sciences degree. Depending on your preference, you can choose between both. To pursue an MBBS degree, you must crack the NEET-UG entrance examination with a competitive score, and for a B.Sc., you need to follow the admission procedure of the particular college. You can opt for a government or private college for any of the undergraduate courses as per your preference and entrance exam score. Always seek proper guidance before choosing a medical college.

Q2. What are the career prospects for pathologists?

Ans. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre. The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Q3. How good is pathology as a career?

Ans. Pathology is a highly promising job as no diagnosis is complete without pathology. Pathologists are in great demand, and the job outlook for them is predicted to improve over the coming ten years at a faster-than-average rate. Pathologists can find employment in a range of places, such as hospitals, clinics, research facilities, diagnostic labs, and governmental organisations. After completing your medical education and gaining experience in Pathology, you can open your diagnostic pathology centre. Pathologists have a highly diverse range of employment options and several prospects for progression. Anatomic pathology, clinical pathology, and forensic pathology are just a few examples of the areas of pathology in which pathologists might specialise.

Q4. What is the salary of an MBBS MD pathologist in India?

Ans. On average, a pathologist earns 50K to 80K per month and it varies depending on the area of employment. The job profiles associated with pathologist include Clinical Pathologist, Professor/Lecturer, Forensic Pathologist, Clinical Researcher Associate, Medical Writer, Transfusion Medicine Specialist, and more.

Click here to get conceptual clarity on MBBS subjects.

Global health comprises the biological and clinical facets of diseases along with the social, economic, political, and environmental determinants of health. The ability to confine health issues inside national borders has diminished as the globe becomes more linked.

The contribution of technology to the medical sector is unparalleled. With the years passing by technology is improving at the highest pace in the medicine sector. Nowadays, the use of AI, and the development of new therapies, drugs, drug development, and surgical procedures, have made complex medical procedures less complex and paved a path to minimally invasive surgeries. Millions of individuals throughout the world are having their lives improved as a result of these developments.

Global health has improved recently despite several obstacles like poverty, pandemics, disease outbreaks, conflicts, and climate change. Maternal and child fatalities have dropped significantly and since the development of new vaccinations, infectious illness spread has also been reduced. Governments and organisations have also boosted their funding for global health concerns and also significantly invested in newer technologies. The current developments in the healthcare industry are beneficial to global health and are an area with significant potential to enhance the health of people all over the world and in the medical field. We can improve the health of people all across the world by addressing the issues and embracing the possibilities.

Medical students and professionals must keep themselves updated and knowledgeable about the recent advancements in healthcare as it is going to impact their career growth to a great extent. To escalate the growth of your medical career, it is mandated to upskill.

The recent advancements in the global healthcare and medicine field are significant for several reasons. By offering more precise diagnoses, earlier illness detection, and more individualised treatment regimens, they have the potential to:

• Improve the quality of care for patients.
• By enabling remote monitoring and care and minimising the need for in-person visits, healthcare may be made more accessible and cheaper.
• Increase the effectiveness of healthcare delivery by simplifying administrative procedures and facilitating information exchange between healthcare professionals.
• Develop novel therapies and preventative measures to lessen the impact of chronic illnesses.
• Boost public health by keeping track of and rapidly and efficiently addressing illness outbreaks.

Below mentioned are technological advancements in medicine and global healthcare:

 

Artificial Intelligence and Healthcare

With the introduction of unprecedented tools for patient care, treatment, and diagnosis, artificial intelligence (AI) is drastically changing the healthcare industry.

For researchers interested in global health, AI-driven health interventions fall into four categories: diagnosis, patient morbidity or mortality risk assessment, disease outbreak prediction and surveillance, and health policy and planning. Machine learning, signal processing, data mining, natural language processing, and other forms of AI are applied in the healthcare sector.

Here are a few current applications of AI in healthcare:

• Diagnosis and treatment: Artificial intelligence (AI) paves the way for the screening of disease and can analyse medical images like X-rays and scans to identify illnesses early and more accurately than humans. AI may be used to create individualised treatment regimens for individuals based on their unique traits and requirements. Other applications of artificial intelligence being used in medicine include Digital chest radiographs, cervical cancer screening, estimating perinatal risk factors, and characterising and predicting the global spread of the Zika virus.
• Drug discovery: Artificial intelligence (AI) may be used to search through extensive databases of chemicals and compounds to find possible new medicines. AI may also be used to foresee how pharmaceuticals would react in the body, lowering the possibility of adverse effects.
• Personalised medicine: Artificial intelligence (AI) may be used to examine a patient’s genetic information, medical history, and lifestyle choices in order to develop a personalised treatment plan that has the highest chance of success.
• Risk assessment: AI may be used to predict the risk of disease and figure out how likely a patient is to have cancer or heart disease. Patients can utilise this knowledge to guide lifestyle adjustments that will lower their risk.
• Healthcare administration: AI may be used to automate processes like appointment scheduling, patient record management, and claim processing. This might free up medical personnel to concentrate on treating patients.
• Telemedicine: Platforms that employ AI in telemedicine can be used to offer doctor consultations via the Internet. Patients with limited access to healthcare in remote locations may particularly benefit from this.
• Robotics: Surgery, pharmaceutical dispensing, and other medical services can be carried out by AI-powered robots. This might aid in enhancing the effectiveness and precision of healthcare delivery.
• Big data analytics: Using AI, enormous databases of healthcare data may be analysed to spot trends and patterns. The diagnosis and treatment of illnesses can be made better with the use of this knowledge.
• Virtual assistants: AI-driven virtual assistants may be used to set up appointments, answer patients’ inquiries, and offer information about their conditions. The patient experience may be enhanced as a result of this.

The future of AI in healthcare is very promising. The use of AI in healthcare is still in its early stages, but it has the potential to revolutionize the way we diagnose, treat, and manage diseases. In the years to come, as AI technology advances, it is anticipated to have a more significant influence on the healthcare industry.

 

Advances in Gene Editing Technology

The science of gene editing is expanding quickly. The way we treat illnesses is changing as a result of gene editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9. These technologies can be used to fix genetic flaws that lead to disease or to add new genes that can offer disease protection.

The following are some of the developments in gene editing technologies that are being investigated for medical applications:

• CRISPR-Cas9: A protein called Cas9 is used by CRISPR-Cas9 to cut DNA at a precise spot. This enables precise gene replacement, deletion, and insertion. The most popular gene editing technology, CRISPR-Cas9, is being researched for a number of uses, including the treatment of HIV, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, and hereditary illnesses.

For instance, in cancer patients, CRISPR-Cas9 is being utilised to create novel cancer medicines that can target and eliminate cancer cells. CAR T-cell treatments, a sort of immunotherapy that employs a patient’s immune cells to combat cancer, are being developed by researchers utilising CRISPR-Cas9.

• Base editing: A more recent gene editing technique, base editing allows you to alter specific DNA nucleotides without actually cutting the DNA. Compared to CRISPR-Cas9, this makes it less likely to result in unwanted side effects. For the therapy of conditions including cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, base editing is being researched.
• RNA editing: An approach to gene editing that can target RNA molecules rather than DNA. This can be utilised to treat conditions like certain cancers that are brought on by RNA alterations.
• Gene therapy: Gene therapy is a treatment that involves introducing genes into cells to correct a genetic defect. Numerous illnesses, including cancer, HIV, and hereditary ailments, have been treated by gene therapy.

These are only a handful of the gene editing innovations that are being investigated for medical applications. Technology’s continued advancement will probably have a significant influence on how we manage diseases in the years to come.

 

Development of Precision Medicine

A person’s unique genetic makeup, lifestyle, and environment are all taken into consideration when developing a medical treatment plan in precision/personalised medicine. This may result in a more effective and targeted treatment with fewer adverse effects.

Personalising medicine may be done in a variety of ways. Typical strategies include:

• Genetic testing includes examining a person’s DNA to see if there are any mutations or variances that might impact their likelihood of contracting a certain disease or their reaction to a particular medication.
• Biomarkers are quantifiable indications of a biological condition or state. Biomarkers can be used to monitor a patient’s response to therapy or to spot those who are most likely to catch a particular disease.
• Environmental factors, such as pollutant exposure, food, and exercise impact how people respond to therapy as well as the development of many diseases.

Precision medicine is becoming more and more feasible as we understand more about the human genome and the part genetics plays in disease. We can create more effective and focused therapies that may result in improvement by taking into consideration a person’s particular demands.

Here are some examples of current applications of precision medicine:

• High-risk cancer patients are identified via genetic testing, and targeted medicines are created that are more efficient for those who have certain genetic alterations.
• Biomarkers are being utilised to monitor an individual’s risk of developing heart disease and to pinpoint those who will benefit from certain therapies the most.
• Scientists are examining the genetic component of Alzheimer’s disease and creating targeted treatments that might be more efficient for those who carry particular genetic abnormalities.

Some of the challenges and limitations of precision medicine include cost, accuracy, accessibility, and regulation.

Personalised medicine is a promising subject with the potential to enhance millions of people’s lives despite these difficulties. It is anticipated to become more accessible, inexpensive, and accurate as technology advances.

 

Development of Telemedicine and Remote Healthcare 

Telemedicine and remote healthcare allow patients to receive care from a doctor or other healthcare provider without having to travel to a doctor’s office or hospital. This can help with healthcare access, particularly in remote locations. The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred telemedicine and remote healthcare development to a great extent. These services are increasingly enticing to patients and providers alike because of the requirement to maintain social distance and avoid in-person visits to healthcare institutions. There are several advantages to telemedicine and remote medical care, such as better access to healthcare, lower healthcare expenses, increased patient satisfaction, and better patient results.

Remote healthcare services and telemedicine come in a wide variety. The most popular ones are Tele-education, remote patient monitoring, and virtual doctor appointments.

Additionally, there are several drawbacks to telemedicine and remote treatment, such as security and privacy issues, a lack of financing, technical issues, and a shortage of skilled providers.

Despite these impediments, telemedicine and remote healthcare are expanding quickly and playing a bigger role in the healthcare system. These services are expected to become progressively more common and available as technology advances.

Here are some of the future trends in telemedicine and remote healthcare:

• Increasing the use of artificial intelligence (AI): AI may be applied to personalise treatment regimens, increase the precision of diagnoses, and keep track of patient’s health.
• Development of novel telehealth technology: More thorough and individualised treatment will be feasible thanks to new gadgets like wearable sensors and virtual reality headsets.
• Expansion into new areas: Telemedicine and remote healthcare will be utilised to deliver care in new areas, such as managing chronic diseases and mental health.

 

Application of 3D Printing in Healthcare

3D printing in medicine is being used to create customised medical items including prostheses, implants, and surgical guides. This innovation might save expenditures while raising the standard of treatment. A rapidly developing technology, 3D printing has a wide range of potential uses in the healthcare sector. Among the most widespread applications of 3D printing in the medical field, some are mentioned below:

• Producing patient-specific medical devices: 3D printing may be used to produce personalised medical items like implants, prostheses, and surgical guides that are tailored to the anatomy of a single patient. In addition to lowering the risk of problems, this can enhance the device’s fit and functionality.
• Building medical models and educating healthcare professionals: 3D printing may be used to build accurate representations of the human body’s organs, tissues, and tumours. These models can be used to aid in the planning and execution of intricate treatments as well as the education of patients about their conditions. This can assist them in picking up new abilities and methods, as well as in practising approaches in a secure setting.
• Creating novel medications and treatments: Tissue scaffolds for cell culture and intricate drug delivery systems may be made using 3D printing. This can aid in the development of novel treatments and medications by researchers for a number of disorders.
• Customising care: Using 3D printing, it is possible to develop treatments and drugs that are specifically suited to the requirements of a certain patient. This might increase the therapy’s efficacy and security.

Here are some specific examples of how 3D printing is being used in healthcare today:

• A company named Materialise has created a 3D-printed breast implant that is specifically designed for women with tuberous breasts. This type of breast deformity is often difficult to treat with traditional implants, but the 3D-printed implant can provide a more natural and comfortable fit.
• A team of researchers at the University of California, San Diego has developed a 3D-printed surgical guide that can be used to remove brain tumors with greater precision and accuracy.
• A company named Organovo has developed a 3D printer that can be used to create human tissue. This tissue can be used to study diseases, develop new drugs, and create personalized medical implants.

These are some of the numerous uses for 3D printing that are now being made in the medical field. As technology advances, it will probably have a bigger influence on the healthcare sector, enhancing the standard of treatment and enhancing accessibility for all.

The use of blockchain technology to increase the security and effectiveness of healthcare data exchange is one of the significant developments being made in the world of healthcare. Smart technologies, particularly wearable sensors, are being developed to extract therapeutically significant health-related data from physical (body) indicators like heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, respiration rate, and body motion. The technology has now also come up with immersive virtual and augmented reality training and education in the medical field.

Advancements in technology, increased investment in global health, partnerships, collaborations among the government, organizations, and individuals, and innovations altogether make a significant contribution to addressing the challenges to global health and improving health outcomes. The rapid pace of technical improvement has made these developments feasible. These technologies will have a bigger influence on global healthcare as they advance.

 

Obstetrics and Gynecology (OBGYN) is a branch of medicine that deals with the health of women, including the reproductive system, pregnancy, and childbirth. OBGYN is a compulsory clinical subject in the MBBS curriculum. Being an MBBS student, you will get hands-on experience in OBGYN during clinical rotations. You will observe and assist doctors in delivering babies, performing surgeries, and treating gynecological conditions. OBGYN is a challenging but rewarding field of medicine.

MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

The OBGYN Prof exam comprises two theory papers of 100 marks each and a practical examination of 200 marks. The theory exam consists of short-answer questions, long-answer questions, case-based questions, and objective-type questions. The practical examination includes clinical examination and viva.

Recommended books for Obstetrics and Gynecology

The most preferred books for studying OBGYN in MBBS are DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology and Contraception), DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology, Shaw’s Textbook of Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Obstetrics, Bedside Clinics in Gynecology, and Ward Rounds in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Subject weightage in NEET-PG and INI-CET

Concentrate on early preparation for both professional exams and competitive exams, especially if you want to pursue postgraduate studies. The subject weightage of Obstetrics and Gynecology in NEET-PG is about 25–30 questions and about 15-20 questions in INI-CET. The subject weightage clearly shows the importance of the subject in both NEET-PG and INI-CET. Try not to miss any high-yielding topics in obstetrics and Gynecology.

High-yielding topics are a crucial component of a productive study plan that will improve your test-taking efficiency. You must carefully schedule your study sessions, giving priority to time management, the course’s high-yielding topics, and, most importantly, your health.

Important and High-Yielding Topics of OBGYN for MBBS Prof Exams, NEET-PG, and INI-CET

Carcinoma Cervix

Aetiology and Staging of Carcinoma Endometrium

Postmenopausal Bleeding in Diabetics and Hypertensives

Hysteroscopy

Endometrial Ablation

PCOS

Letrozole and Metformin Pharmacology

Ovulation Induction

Carcinoma Ovary Staging

Germ cell tumors, especially Dermoid and Dysgerminomas

Laparotomy

Raloxofene and Bisphosphonates

HRT Indications and Contraindications

Testicular Feminization Syndrome

Treatment of CAH

Turners Syndrome

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Antepartum and Intrapartum Surveillance

NST and CTG

Biophysical profile and dynamics of amniotic fluid

Doppler of the Uterine Artery

Ductus venosus ‘M’ wave pattern

Malpresentation and Malposition

Placenta-accrete case

Management of PPH

Blood Component Therapy

Management of Shoulder Dystocia

Stages of labour

Ectopic Pregnancy

Molar Pregnancy

Cell-free DNA

Preterm Labour

APH

Sterilisation Surgeries

COVID Pregnancy

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Cesarean section of childbirth

Ultrasound in Pregnancy

Diabetic Mother

Pre-eclampsia

Ca Cervix

Ovarian Cancer

Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding

Uterine Prolapse

Fibroid

Postmenopausal Bleeding

Contraception, especially Oral Contraceptive Pills

Endometriosis

Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases

Stress Urinary Incontinence

Important Topics in OBGYN for the Practical Examination

OBGYN is a vast but rewarding clinical subject, and hence, it is highly crucial to learn and excel in the practical curriculum as well. During MBBS, you learn about the anatomy and physiology of the female reproductive system, as well as the diagnosis of common gynecological and obstetrical conditions. You also gain experience performing pelvic exams and other diagnostic procedures. To score well in MBBS practical exams, you should be familiar with the basic principles and procedures of OBGYN and be able to perform the essential clinical skills.

Some of the important topics for the OBGYN practical exam include:

Common Surgical Instruments

Pelvic Examination

History-taking and Clinical assessment of common OBGYN conditions

Bimanual Examination

Vaginal Ultrasound

Speculum Examination

Pap Smear: Cervical Cytology

Breast Examination

Contraception

Infertility

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Normal Labor and Delivery

Postpartum Care

Gynecological Surgery Procedures

Here are some additional tips for preparing for the MBBS practical exams in OBGYN:

• Practice performing the pelvic examination and other clinical skills on mannequins or other simulated patients.
• Read textbooks, review articles, and case studies on OBGYN.
• Attend lectures and tutorials on OBGYN procedures and examinations.
• Shadow an OBGYN physician to get hands-on experience.
• Take practice exams to assess your knowledge and skills.

By following these tips, you can be well-prepared for the MBBS practical exams in OBGYN.

To ace your examinations and escalate your learning, you can enroll in the OBGYN for Undergrads course by Dr. K. Srinivas. The content and video lectures in the course are aligned with the CBME curriculum and also incorporate knowledge from the various standard textbooks. This comprehensive course is well integrated with knowledge of clinical obstetrics and gynecological examinations, case discussions, and highly illustrative clinical and radiological images. This course by the eminent faculty provides access to video lectures, notes, self-assessment questions, and clinical cases.

Case discussions and Qbanks of Obstetrics and Gynecology acquaint the students with the commonly asked questions during the practical exam and viva voce. Hence, this course is ideal for OBGYN students to excel in Obstetrics and Gynecology subject and to eventually score high in MBBS theory exams, practical exams, viva voce, and competitive entrance exams.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What is the difference between a gynecologist and an obstetrician?

Ans. An obstetrician is a doctor who specializes in the care of women and their babies during pregnancy and childbirth whereas a Gynecologist is a doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of female reproductive disorders.

Q2. What are the high-yield topics in obstetrics and gynecology?

Ans. The high-yield topics in obstetrics and gynecology are Endometriosis, Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases, Stress Urinary Incontinence,

Postmenopausal bleeding in diabetics and hypertensives, Hysteroscopy, Endometrial Ablation, PCOS, Letrozole and metformin pharmacology, Antepartum and intrapartum surveillance, Malpresentation and malposition, Management of PPH, Blood component therapy, Management of Shoulder Dystocia and more.

Q3. Which book is best for OBG MBBS?

Ans. The most preferred books for studying OBGYN in MBBS are DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology and Contraception), DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology, Shaw’s Textbook of Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Gynecology, Self-Assessment and Review Obstetrics, Bedside Clinics in Gynecology, and Ward Rounds in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

Forensic Medicine and Toxicology subject is included in the third prof of the MBBS curriculum. The main objective of teaching forensic medicine to undergraduate students is to create a doctor who is knowledgeable about medico-legal duty while practicing medicine. You will also be able to make observations and draw conclusions using logical inquiries into criminal situations and related medicolegal issues in the proper direction. You learn about applying law to medical practice, and adherence to medical ethics regulations.

MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

According to the CBME curriculum, the MBBS prof exam of the Forensic Medicine and Toxicology subject comprises one theory exam of 100 marks, and the practical examination (Practical/Clinical + Viva) of 100 marks. The theoretical exam has a variety of question types, such as structured essays (long answer questions, or LAQ), short response questions, and objective questions (MCQs and IBQs).

Recommended Books of FMT

Recommended books for FMT in MBBS include Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology and Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (Volume-1 and 2) by Gautam Biswas, The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy and OP Murty, Forensic Medicine by J Magendran, and The Synopsis of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy.

Subject Weightage of FMT in NEET-PG and INI-CET

Concentrate on early preparation for both professional exams and competitive entrance exams, especially when you want to pursue postgraduate study. The two main entrance examinations in India are NEET-PG/NExT and INI-CET to get admission into PG courses. The subject weightage of the FMT subject is about 10 questions in NEET-PG and 8 questions in the INI-CET entrance examination.

Important Topics of FMT for MBBS Prof Exams, NEET-PG, and INI-CET Entrance Examination

High-yielding topics are a crucial component of a productive study plan that will improve your test-taking efficiency. You must carefully schedule your study sessions, giving priority to time management, the course’s high-yielding themes, and, most importantly, your health. FMT in MBBS is a multidisciplinary subject and is among the high-scoring subjects. The subject requires frequent revision for better retention.

Here’s a list of high-yielding topics of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for NEET-PG, INI-CET, and MBBS Prof exams:

Medical Jurisprudence and Ethics

Functions of MCI

Functions of SMC

Professional Misconduct and Penal Erasure

Difference between Professional Negligence and Infamous Misconduct

Consent: Types, Exceptions, Age of Consent, Inform Consent, False Consent

Difference between Civil and Criminal Negligence

Res Ipsa Loquitur

Defenses against negligence

Acts Related to Medical Practice

Transplantation of Human Organ Act, 1994

Consumer Protection Act, 1986

Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012

The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017

Legal Procedure

Inquest

Courts of Law

Difference between Dying Declaration and Dying Deposition

Exceptions to Oral Evidence

Duties of a doctor in the witness box

Capital Punishment

Type of Evidence and Witness

Homicide

Identification

Cephalic index

Intersex

Age determination by dentition, x-rays, and mandible

Gustafson’s method

MLI of age

MLI of scar, tattoo marks

Dactylography

Fingerprint Identification

Difference between antemortem and PM clot

Autopsy

Exhumation

Forensic Psychiatry

Delusion

Hallucination

Impulse

Difference between psychosis and neurosis

Lucid interval

Schizophrenia

Testamentary capacity

Section 84 IPC

Somnambulism

Erectile Dysfunction and Sterility

Impotence, Sterility, Frigidity, Quod

Vaginismus

Artificial Insemination

Surrogate mother

Causes of erectile dysfunction and sterility in males

Causes of impotence and sterility in females

Virginity, pregnancy, and delivery

Hymen

Difference between true virgin and false virgin

Presumptive, probable, and positive signs of pregnancy

Superfecundation and superfetation and their MLI

Difference between nulliparous and parous uterus

Sexual Offences

Classification of sexual offences

Section 375 IPC

Punishment of rape 376 IPC

Examination of rape victim/survivor

Locard’s exchange principle

Sodomy/Buggery

Tribadism/Lesbianism

Sexual paraphilias types

Exhibitonism, frotteurism/toucherism

Seminal strains test

Injuries

Grievous hurt, section 320 IPC

Joule burn

Classification of thermal injuries

Heat hyperpyrexia/Heat stroke

Burns

Difference between pugilistic attitude and rigor mortis

Skull fractures

Extradural/Epidural hematoma

Bullet types

Components of gun powder

Abrasion

Contusion

Laceration

Ectopic/Migratory bruise

Fabricated/forged wounds

Intracranial hemorrhages

Cold injuries- frostbite

Would ballistics

Asphyxia

Causes/Classification of asphyxia deaths

Lynching

Difference between hanging and strangulation

Cafe coronary syndrome

Post-mortem examination of a drowning case

Diatom test

Sexual asphyxia

Death/Thanatology

Rigor mortis/Stiffness of death

Cadaveric spasm

Heat stiffening

Order of putrefaction

Mummification

Brain stem death

Cause, manner, and mode of death

Sudden death

Tache noire

Infanticide and Child Abuse

Hydrostatic test

Cause of infant death

Shaken baby syndrome or infantile whiplash syndrome

Difference between live born, dead born, and stillborn fetus

Hydrostatic test

Toxicology

Section 284 IPC

Classification of poison

Organophosphorus compounds poisoning

Alphos poisoning

Vitriolage

Chronic arsenic poisoning

Hydragyrism

Phossy jaw/Lucifer’s jaw/Glass jaw

Sui

Difference between true and artificial bruise

Signs and symptoms of Ophitoxemia

Snake poisoning

Section 85 IPC

Widmark’s formula

LSD

Date rape drugs

Others

Poat-mortem artefacts

Transportation injuries

Confirmatory tests for blood

Medico-legal application of blood groups

Precipitin methods

To get conceptual clarity in the FMT modules and learn in a simplified manner, subscribe to DigiNerve’s online FMT course. The Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for UnderGrads course is well conceptualized by eminent faculty, Dr. Gautam Biswas according to the CBME curriculum. Application-based learning has been given top priority, and even the test question format is created to gauge students’ clinical expertise.   The training is designed for medical students to help them be ready for both their university examinations and the NEET PG/NExT Exam. The lectures for the course cover every relevant topic in an interesting manner. In order to help students comprehend ideas better, the course includes flowcharts, animations, brief films, diagrams, and well-integrated MCQs.

Click here to know the right way to approach FMT in MBBS.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What are the important topics of FMT in MBBS?

Ans. The important topics of FMT in MBBS include Legal Procedure, Identification, Thanatology, Asphyxia, Injuries, Rape, General toxicology, OPC poisoning, Snakebite, Medicinal poisoning, Autopsy, fingerprint identification, Burns, Skull fracture, and more.

Q2. Which are the recommended books of Anatomy for MBBS students?

Ans. Recommended books for FMT in MBBS include Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology and Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (Volume-1 and 2) by Gautam Biswas, The Essentials of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy and OP Murty, Forensic Medicine by J Magendran, and The Synopsis of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology by KS Narayan Reddy.

Q3. What is the weightage of FMT in the NEET PG exam?

Ans. The weightage of FMT in NEET PG is approximately 10 questions.

Q4. Where can I find an affordable yet comprehensive online course for forensic medicine?

The best forensic medicine online course 2023 is Forensic Medicine and Toxicology for UnderGrads by Dr. Gautam Biswas. The course is comprehensive, clinically up-to-date, and quite affordable.

The Chapter 2 of the NMC Update describes the broad outline of the National Exit Exam, including general features of steps 1 and 2, NExT scores, nature of scores, minimum passing score, etc.

General Features of the NExT Exam

The NExT Exam shall comprise two separate exams referred to as “Steps”.

Step 1: Theoretical Examination

Step 2: Practical/Clinical and Viva Voce Examination

 

NExT Step 1

1.NExT Step 1 shall be a theoretical and Computer-based/Online examination.

2. It shall comprise one or more types of multiple-choice questions.

3. This shall be a Centralized Common All India Examination that will be held by a body designated by the commission as the conducting authority.

4. The examination shall include six papers covering topics from both Part 1 and 2 of the III MBBS/Final MBBS programme:

• Medicine and allied disciplines
• Surgery and allied disciplines
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Pediatrics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Ophthalmology

(Applied aspects of all subjects covered under I MBBS and II MBBS and Applied aspects of all subjects covered under III MBBS/Final MBBS Part l)

5. Students who have completed their III MBBS/Final MBBS course from a recognized medical college shall be eligible to appear for the examination.

6. NExT Step 1 Examination shall be held twice a year in the months of May and November tentatively.

7. There shall be no restriction on the number of attempts to participate in NExT Step 1 provided that the candidate has completed both the NExT Step 1 and NExT Step 2 exams within ten years of enrolling in the MBBS Course.

8. There is no cap on the number of times for attempting the NExT Step 1 Regular Examination to improve your score but you can only go for the improvement after completing your NExT Step 2.

9. The III MBBS/Final MBBS Part 1 and III MBBS/Final MBBS Part II Practical/clinical examinations will continue to be held conventionally unless otherwise stated by the Commission and the NExT Step 1 will replace the traditional university/institutional Theory Examinations of the III MBBS/Final MBBS Part II.

 

NExT Step 2

1. The NExT Step 2 shall be a Practical/Clinical and viva voce examination comprising seven clinical subjects/disciplines:

• Medicine and allied disciplines
• Surgery and allied disciplines
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Pediatrics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopaedics and PMR (Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation)

2. The exam shall be objectively structured, clinical case-based, and use simulated cases and patients to evaluate practical and clinical skills as well as clinical decision-making and communication abilities expected of an Indian medical graduate.

3. The exam must be taken in person or live, and it must be administered by the relevant state health universities or institutions in accordance with the norms and directives given by the Commission. The Commission will choose the university or institution that is permitted to conduct NExT Step 2 for the relevant colleges where there are no state health universities.

4. The Regular NExT Step 2 Exam shall be held twice a year.

5. A NExT Step 2 Supplementary Examination is only open to candidates who have failed in one or more (up to three) of the seven subjects and are required to repeat specific subjects. It will be held twice a year. If a candidate fails in more than three subjects, then they will have to appear in supplementary exams of all the seven subjects.

7. As long as the candidate has completed both the NExT Step 1 and NExT Step 2 Examinations within ten years of enrolling in the MBBS programme, there is no restriction on the number of attempts to participate in NExT Step 2.

NExT Scores

1. Nature of Scoring

1. The marks in NExT Step 1 must be calculated as a whole number, which will serve as the Raw Scores with the proper decimals. Also, equivalent Percentages (marks out of a maximum of 100) with the proper decimals may then be calculated.
2. The outcomes of the NExT 2 exams will only be reported as Pass/Fail depending on the acquisition of the relevant competence that is being evaluated.

2. Minimum scores for passing

1. The minimum score to pass shall be 50% of the total or half of the maximum possible Raw for NExT Step 1.
2. To pass the NExT Step 1 exam, you must receive a minimum of 50% (50 out of 100) in each of the six papers or half of the maximum possible Raw Scores.
3. The requirements for passing NExT Step 2 include a successful demonstration of having acquired the competencies that are evaluated, with a pass/fail result being given.

3. Calculation of NExT Step 1 scores for determining merit for the purpose of admission to Postgraduate courses in broad specialties

1. The sum of the raw scores earned in each paper or topic in a single NExT 1 exam will be used to calculate the Total Marks for determining the merit, particularly for admission to broad specialization Postgraduate Courses.
2. The candidate must follow the generation of a rank application process as stipulated by the Commission from time to time in order to determine rank for admission into Postgraduate courses in broad specializations in a given academic year. Only individuals who have submitted an application for rank generation will be eligible for admission for that cycle of the academic year.
3. The NExT Step results will be valid for five years in order to determine merit, notably for admission to broad-specialty postgraduate courses. If a candidate has appeared in the NExT exam cycle then the score of the latest given NExT step 1 exam will be considered.
4. Tie-breaker rule for rank generation:

• • Normalized sum of raw scores obtained in each paper in NExT step 1 although the method of normalization will be notified later.
  • Candidate with the lower attempts in NExT step 1 will be placed higher in the merit list.
  • Candidates will be given higher rank based on the higher marks in the following order of preference:

1. 1. 1. Medicine and allied disciplines
      2. Surgery and allied disciplines
      3. Obstetrics and Gynecology
      4. Pediatrics
      5. Otorhinolaryngology
      6. Ophthalmology

4. Utility of NExT Scores

1. An MBBS student from a college recognized by the Commission shall be eligible for compulsory internship only if they pass in each of the six theory papers of NExT Part 1 and also pass in III MBBS/Final MBBS (Part 2) Practical/Clinical Examination.
2. A medical student who has completed their undergraduate studies abroad at an institution recognized by the Commission and who has met the necessary requirements outlined in the Commission’s Foreign Medical Graduate Regulations is eligible to participate in the mandatory rotating internship programme only if they pass in all six NExT Step 1 Theory Papers.
3. A medical graduate who received their training in India or outside of India will be entitled to register in the Indian Medical Register and State Medical Register and obtain a license to practice modern medicine in India, only if, they have completed the internship for the appropriate length of time and have successfully passed the NExT Step 2 (Practical / Clinical) Examination. You must fulfill all the requirements as per the Registration of Medical Practitioners and Licence to practice Medicine Regulations, of NMC. Also, all the other requirements are considered appropriate by the Commission, Concerned University/Institution and duly applicable at that time.
4. For admission to PG medical courses in broad specialty subjects, a candidate must meet the following criteria:
   • Candidates must meet the conditions outlined for NExT Part 1 and 2, making them eligible for a license to practice modern medicine in India.
   • Must engage in common counselling by a designated authority granted by the Central Government or Commission.
5. The NExT Step I Scores may be used by the Government of India, the State Governments, any organization of the Government of India, the State Governments, or any autonomous or private body/institution for the purpose of employment, provided that the necessary authorization has been sought and authorized by the National Medical Commission or other appropriate authorities as determined to be appropriate.

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 1 (Preliminary)

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 3 (General Information)

The NExT Exam latest news includes Chapter 1 (Preliminary) and Chapter 2 (Broad Outline) and Chapter 3 (General Information).

The core objective of the NExT exam is to provide consistency in summative evaluations conducted across the nation in relation to the minimal requirements for a medical graduate’s education and training.

The National Exit Test (NExT), shall serve as a licentiate examination for validating a medical graduate’s eligibility to register for practice the contemporary system of medicine in India.

NExT will also act as an entrance exam for admission to PG medical education in broad medical specialties by determining the eligibility and ranking of the MBBS students.

 

The National Exit Exam shall be applicable to:

1. All undergraduate medical students seeking the MBBS degree at all medical colleges that have been accredited by the National Medical Commission along with Institutes of National Importance (INIs) are subject to the National Exit Test (NExT).
2. All foreign medical graduates who have been granted approval by the NMC for the purposes of obtaining a license to practice medicine as a registered medical practitioner in India and for enrollment in the State Register or the National Register in such a manner as may be specified by regulations.
3. Anyone with a medical degree aiming to pursue an academic course, an observership, or any other purpose that may be specified and allowed by the NMC by appropriate notification or rules from time to time.
4. Anyone with the granted medical license practicing in India wishes to pursue PG degree can take the NExT exam.

 

According to the draft released, the NExT comprises two separate examinations, referred to as “Steps”.

Step 1: Theoretical Examination
Step 2: Practical/Clinical and Viva Voce Examination

 

The Commission shall from time to time determine, by appropriate regulations and/or notification, the applicable method of employing the NExT results for admission to Postgraduate Courses in wide medical specialties by means of common counselling by the designated authority.

There is no confirmation yet on the academic session to which the NExT exam will be applicable but when it will come into force, all other corresponding and equivalent examinations shall be phased/ceased out.

It is still to be decided by the Commission Central Government, State Government, that the existing examinations, however, shall continue for as long as may be necessary or the analogous existing exams will be replaced by the NExT. The Commission will decide when it is necessary and will notify the use of scores and normalization of various examinations and the NExT, when applicable concurrently, for such purposes as may be appropriate.

Chapters 2 and 3 of the update include the complete structure of the NExT Examination, objectives, exam pattern, eligibility, distribution of subjects, nature of scoring, timetables, and more.

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 2 (Broad Outline)

Click Here to Read NMC NExT Exam Update – Chapter 3 (General Information)

After completing 12^th standard, students who want to pursue their career in medicine must take the NEET-UG entrance examination. Around 15 lakh aspirants appeared for the exam last year which itself is a huge number for a total of about 78,000 thousand medical seats in India. Hence, it is highly competitive to get admission into the MBBS programme. As the NEET-UG exam is approaching on May 7 this year, students should polish their skills and stick to their preparation strategy. Strictly following the preparation tips and putting consistent efforts will keep you ahead of the competition.

Here’s are some last-minute reliable preparation tips for the NEET-UG Exam.

Practice mock paper with your timers on: This will help you in analyzing the exam pattern, evaluating your level of understanding of the topic, and of course, developing time management skills.

Solve previous year question papers: Solve previous year papers of at least last 10 years. This will give you an idea about the exam pattern, type of questions asked from the chapter and topic. It will boost your confidence.

Don’t study from multiple resources at the last moment: Before exams, always prefer to study from NCERT books and notes. This will help you with quick revision and covering the entire syllabus with focusing more on the important topics for NEET-UG exam.

Refrain from studying new chapters and concepts: The NEET-UG 2023 syllabus is vast, and it is not possible to grasp everything in one go. In case you have missed any difficult concept, refrain from starting anything in the last days because studying any topic from the beginning and then making notes is time taking which in turn increases pressure and workload. Instead, it is advised to practice the topics you have already learned and have a tight grasp over it.

Put consistent efforts: As the syllabus is quite extensive and the level of complexity is high, you must put in consistent effort to practice and revise every topic properly.

Practice, Practice and Practice: Practice as much as questions you can. Practise formulae, flowcharts, schematic diagrams, tables, graphs, remember the conversions and values of the variables, and other crucial topics. It plays a critical role in scoring well in the exams.  Write and learn all the shortcut approaches which are easy to memorize the concept and recall during exam.

Prioritize Chapters: Prioritize the maximum weightage and important topics during the last period of your preparation.

Important Units of Physics for NEET-UG:

• Mechanics
• Heat and Thermodynamics
• Waves
• Magnetism
• Modern Physics
• Electricity
• Optics

Important Units of Chemistry for NEET-UG:

• Atomic structure
• Equilibrium
• Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
• Electrochemistry
• Chemical Kinetics
• Coordination Compounds
• Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
• s, p, d, and f -block Elements
• Hydrocarbons

Important Units of Biology for NEET-UG: 

• Evolution
• Biotechnology
• Structural organisation in animals
• Animal kingdom
• Biomolecules
• Plant physiology
• Cell & Cell Cycle
• Genetics
• Ecology
• Diversity of Living Organisms
• Human Physiology
• Human Health and Diseases
• Human Reproduction

Maintain your physical and mental health and take proper sleep: Maintaining good health is equally important as effective preparation. It is advised to take some time to meditate and exercise and keep yourself healthy. Remain calm and don’t overexert yourself. Negligence in terms of health will keep all your efforts at stake.

Be confident: Don’t panic in the last days of your preparation. Revise thoroughly what you have prepared so far and avoid comparing yourself with your fellows. Have faith in yourself and stick to your preparation, just avoid procrastination. Identify your pain areas, clear your doubts and practice more.

Prepare in advance: Read all the instructions provided on the admit card and strictly adhere to it. Avoid carrying the barred items and get dressed as per the NEET-UG exam dress code. Arrange all your required documents and valid ID proof for the exam day prior.

Maintain a healthy lifestyle: Keep in mind that if you fall sick all your efforts will go in vain. Hence, take proper sleep, eat healthy food, and do exercises to keep yourself healthy.

Do’s and Don’ts on the Exam Day

• Check your exam centre location prior to your exam or visit once to avoid being late on your exam day.
• Go through the instructions regarding exam day, dress code, barred items, required documents and photographs and more.
• Be very careful while bubbling in the OMR answer sheet.
• Start your exam with the subject you are more confident in and manage your time effectively.
• Don’t waste your time in thinking over a question much and do the next.
• Don’t rely on guesswork. There is a negative marking in the NEET-UG exam and hence, guesswork can reduce your overall score.
• Strictily adhere to the dresscode guidelines issues by NEET authority.
• Concentrate on your last-minute revision.
• Don’t let yourself feel dehydrated.
• Remain focused and attentive.
• Read all the instructions carefully before starting the exam to avoid any mistake.
• Double check your OMR sheet before submitting.
• Do not carry any barred/prohibited items.
• Stay positive and determined.

List of Barred Items

• Any type of study material, and stationery items such as, papers, pens, writing pads, geometry boxes, logbook, calculator, etc.
• Any communication devices such as mobile phones, Bluetooth, earphones, microphones, health band, smart watches, etc.
• Accessories like watch, wallet, bracelets, googles, cap, etc.
• Any ornaments and metallic items
• Any food item and beverage
• Any kind of cheating material

Things to carry at the Examination Day

• You must carry the following things to the Exam Centre:
  • NEET-UG admit card with the passport size photograph affixed on it
  • One passport size photograph to be affixed on the attendance sheet
  • Valid Identity proof and PwBD certificate, if required
  • Proforma downloaded with the admit card and one post card size photograph (4” * 6”) with white background must be affixed on the proforma and hand over to the invigilator at the exam centre.

Dress Code

You must follow the instructions regarding the dress code. If you don’t follow dress code, it will create chaos during frisking and you will be not allowed to sit in the exam. You must keep the following things in mind:

• Long sleeves clothes are not allowed to wear.
• Clothes with large buttons are not allowed.
• Accessories like studs, earrings, rings, etc. are not allowed.
• If any candidate is coming in the cultural customary dress for examination at any exam centre, you must report at least an hour before the reporting time.
• Shoes are not permitted. Slippers, sandals, and low heel footwear are allowed.

Your consistent efforts and determination will pay off, just have faith in yourself.

Click here to know more about NEET-UG Entrance Examination.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. What is the exam date of NEET UG 2023?

Ans. The NEET-UG entrance exam will be held on 7^th May, 2023.

Q2. What is the pass mark for NEET?

Ans. The cut off marks for NEET-UG as per 2022 is 117 out of 720. But these cut-off marks are not to get admission to variety of medical undergraduate courses.

Q3. Which is the conducting body for NEET-UG?

Ans. The NEET-UG entrance examination is conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA).

Q4. Which dresses are not allowed for NEET?

Ans. You must keep the following things in mind:

• Long sleeves clothes are not allowed to wear.
• Clothes with large buttons are not allowed.
• Accessories like studs, earrings, rings, etc. are not allowed.
• If any candidate is coming in the cultural customary dress for examination at any exam centre, you must report at least an hour before the reporting time.
• Shoes are not permitted. Slippers, sandals, and low heel footwear are allowed.

The subjects included in the fourth year of MBBS curriculum are General Medicine, Dermatology, Psychiatry, General Surgery, Anaesthesiology, Orthopaedics, Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics.

A medical student must always refer to the latest editions of the book to get the updated information revised according to the CBME curriculum.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 4^th Year students:

Best Books for General Medicine

Book	Author	Desciption
An Insider’s Guide to Clinical Medicine	Archith Boloor & Anudeep Padakanti	This is one of the best books of Medicine for the undergraduate students. The Key Features of the book are: ✓  X-rays, Spotters, Common Medicines, and Instruments are included that assists in making an early diagnosis. ✓  Contains thorough material organised in little boxes and figures, making it a convenient resource for revision. ✓  Discusses model cases and conventional presentations. ✓  Only book including chapters on mental disorders, geriatric evaluation, and rheumatology. ✓  Case sheet and diagnostic formats are included for cases in each system. ✓  With clear conceptual explanations and lots of visual memory aids, it is simple to read.
Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Medicine	Archith Boloor & Ramadas Nayak	The book caters all the MBBS undergraduates and PG aspirants. The information that has been absorbed over so many years is the core of this book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Includes all the reading material a medical student at the undergraduate level would need. ✓  Simple to read, filled with visual memory and intellectual explanations. ✓  It is a ready reckoner since it contains complete information in little boxes and figures. ✓  High-yield points for the MRCP, NEET, and other competitive examinations have been included.
Self-Assessment & Review Medicine (Part A & B)	Mudit Khanna	For the PG entrance exam preparation, this book is a must. The key features of the book are: ✓  ‘Essential Revision Notes’ are provided before each chapter to revise all relevant and crucial topics in a more systematic manner. ✓  The book methodically approaches “medicine” by segmenting its information into clinical chapters and then into logical ideas and themes. ✓  Harrison’s and CMDT’s most recent editions have been completely updated and reviewed in the book. ✓  Presents the most crucial information in a way that is “simple to recall,” including flow diagrams and tabulation. ✓  Includes a big database of questions from prior entrance exams. ✓  Dedicated section for IBQs.
Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine (Volume I & Volume II)	J. Larry Jameson, Anthony S. Fauci, Dennis L. Kasper, Stephen L. Hauser, Dan L. Longo, & Joseph Loscalzo	The book is updated with recently authorised treatments, new practice-altering recommendations, and evidence summaries. The key features of the book are: ✓  More than a thousand clinical, pathological, and radiographic images, and schematic diagrams are included. ✓  Clinically relevant decision trees and algorithms for diagnosis and treatment are included. ✓  The latest version has been completely updated with pertinent new chapters and significant revisions throughout the field of internal medicine.

Best Books for General Surgery

 

Book	Author	Description
SRB’s Manual of Surgery	Sriram Bhat M	The book comprises three sections – General Surgery, Gastrointestinal Surgeries, and Specialties & Other Surgeries—covering every area of surgery. The key features of the book are: ✓  Each chapter begins with surgical anatomy and physiology, important pertinent investigations, and a discussion of many issues in a systematic order to give readers a flow of ideas and materials with clear language. ✓  Every chapter is aligned in accordance with the CBME curriculum. ✓  Case scenarios are supplemented with brief clinical details and related images. ✓ Throughout all chapters, novel therapy modalities, concepts, and recent advancements are introduced. ✓  The book provides complimentary online learning resources: Clinically Integrated MCQs Clinical Cases Clinical Examination Videos
Surgery Essence	Pritesh kumar Singh	The latest edition is completely revised and updated as per new CBME curriculum along with the recent advancements. The key features of the book are: ✓  The annexures contain triads, signals, investigations of options, and subjects based on the “most prevalent” types of questions to save time and aids in revision. ✓  IBQs are added for the PG entrance exam preparation. ✓  Synopsis is included before questions to help students understand the ideas and save time. ✓  New pattern based on NBE (wider coverage, concept development, one-liner approach) is included. ✓  Solved Multiple-Choice Questions (PGMEEs 2022-1985), including all recent ones (2022-2013) are added. ✓  Crucial information is highlighted in gold. ✓  Line diagrams and mnemonics are also provided.
SRB’s Clinical Methods in Surgery	Sriram Bhat M	The latest edition of the book is thoroughly according to the new CBME curriculum. The key features of the book are: ✓  Each chapter includes information on clinical assessment techniques, investigations, and a concise summary of all surgically relevant disorders. ✓  Basic general examinations are appropriately described using examples. ✓  Provides thorough instructions for clinical evaluation along with top-notch images and graphics. ✓  The book emphasises the need of thorough clinical examinations for determining the best diagnosis, course of therapy, and follow-up. ✓  Every topic includes discussion of differential diagnosis. ✓  Several chapters offer case discussions to show students how precisely clinical examination questions are phrased. ✓  Clinical pearls are included as surgical wisdom in a few chapters and are crucial while treating surgical patients. ✓  At the conclusion, there are chapters on instruments, X-rays, and specimens for a rapid glance during the practical exam in surgery. ✓  Students can scan the QR codes and access the case demonstration videos(typical surgical situations).
Bailey & Love’s Short Practice of Surgery: International Student’s Edition (set volume 1 & 2)	Norman Williams, P Ronan O’Connell & Andrew McCaskie	This book continues to be a trusted companion of medical students and surgeons and is a collection of the fundamental knowledge required for safe surgical practice. The key features of the book are: ✓  Chapter contains summary boxes with important information throughout the text. ✓  Tables, pictures, and diagrams’ uniform design and format make it easier to grasp difficult ideas. ✓  Also contains algorithms to help the reader comprehend patient care pathways. ✓  The book highlights recent significant advancements in surgical practise and those that are predicted to have a significant impact over the next ten years. ✓  Also covers paediatric surgery and organ transplantation in more detail. ✓  Readers may access supplemental material on the dedicated Bailey & Love website, which also has extended content, videos, and other tools. ✓  The pillars of safe clinical practise continue to be a thorough history taking, observation, logical reasoning, technical expertise, and postoperative patient care and is explained in the book for the students.

Best Book for Psychiatry

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Psychiatry	Praveen Tripathi	It is one of the bestselling books of Psychiatry. The latest edition of the book is thoroughly updated with the PG entrance exam questions. The key features of the book are: ✓  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, has been completely revised (DSM-5). ✓  This book has been developed keeping in mind the demands of students preparing for different postgraduate entrance examinations and MCI screening test. ✓  Updated completely with ICD-11. ✓  INI-CET pattern questions have been updated. ✓  Issues like the Mental Health Care Act have been updated. ✓  Updated based on the 10th editions of the Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry by Kaplan and Sadock and the 7th edition of the Short Textbook of Psychiatry. ✓  Includes IBQs.

Best Books for Pediatrics

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Pediatrics & Neonatology	Apurv Mehra, Meenakshi Bothra Gupta & Taruna Mehra	This is a best-selling review book on paediatrics and neonatology. The key features of the book are: ✓  To help students become familiar with current trends and test patterns, the book is enhanced with more than 3200 MCQs that are organised chronologically with recent questions. ✓  Provides a brief, point-by-point summary of each chapter, including high-yield points, mnemonics, and flow diagrams. ✓  The chapters have been divided into three sections: General Paediatrics, Neonatology, and Systemic Paediatrics. ✓  Developmental stages, prominent characteristics of significant metabolic illnesses, significant genetic syndromes, a list of “Most Common” and many other crucial high-yielding topics for last-minute review are included in the annexures. ✓  Over 500 completely coloured photos are included. ✓  Under the guise of an “integrated approach,” questions with an emphasis on images have been offered.
Ghai Essential Pediatrics	Vinod K. Paul & Arvind Bagga	A top-notch paediatrics textbook is OP Ghai Pediatrics. The key features of the book are: ✓  Excellently drawn tables, graphs, and flowcharts are provided throughout the book and explanations are simple to grasp. ✓  Every chapter generally has “Suggested Reading” at the conclusion in case a student wishes to go more into the subject. ✓  The chapters on growth, adolescent health, vaccination, infection, the gastrointestinal system, malignancies, and inborn metabolic defects have all undergone considerable rewriting and revision in the latest edition. ✓  With a wide range of distinguished authors, this paediatrics textbook is the most favoured and trusted in India for both undergraduate and graduate students.
Exam preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Pediatrics	Snehal Patel, Halak Vasavada	It is an ‘All in one’ book that covers theory, applications, PG entrance questions, and clinical practise content. The key features of the book are: ✓  Sample case presentations with frequently asked questions in viva are part of a special practical paediatrics chapter. ✓  A brand-new chapter on Covid-19 and the Covid 19 vaccinations contains myths, tragedies, and brilliant ideas is included in the latest edition of the book. ✓  For typical ward operations and competences, there are brief video snippets. ✓  Include clinical case studies at the conclusion of each chapter. ✓  Rational investigative technique, bedside realistic interpretations of frequent investigations are included. ✓  Important clinical tips in each topic—a must remember. ✓  Using flowcharts, tables, and figures, create a reader-friendly question-and-answer presentation.
UG Textbook of Pediatrics	Piyush Gupta	The NMC’s 35 Subjects and 406 key Competencies are precisely the emphasis of the revised edition of the book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Diagrams, flowcharts, and clinical pictures are abundant throughout the book to aid with comprehension and recall. They really make up the majority of the book. ✓  The text is succinct, to the point, and yet comprehensive; it is interwoven with numerous Tables and Boxes, where necessary. ✓  Case Studies that demonstrate the typical outcomes of common diseases in children are sprinkled throughout the book as an addition. ✓  Each significant topic is followed by “In A Nutshell” overview of the main ideas. So, only reading these boxes can revise the entire text. ✓  The sentences are brief, the paragraphs are concise, and the jargon has been deconstructed to make the text easier to read. ✓  The design uses colour coding to identify treatment, case studies, revision points, tables, boxes, and recommended reading.

Best Books for Orthopaedics

 

Book	Author	Description
Essential Orthopedics: Principles & Practice (2 Volumes)	Manish Kumar Varshney	It is one of the best books on orthopaedics for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Updated and thoroughly edited to reflect the latest developments in the treatment of elective orthopaedic disorders. ✓  An orthopaedic trauma primer with a list of frequently occurring fractures has been included to the annexures. ✓  The foundational sciences of orthopaedics have been thoroughly covered. ✓  To establish linkage, sections are separated into bodily areas. ✓  The growth of Malunions, Musculoskeletal Imaging, Preoperative Planning, Nanotechnology, Orthopedics in the Digital Renaissance, and Neglected Trauma to Bones and Joints (Annexure 4) are a few of the new chapters that have been introduced. ✓  Addition of a large number of pertinent images and figures, as well as tabulation. ✓  Enhanced with more than 2200 insightful graphics.
Fundamentals of Orthopedics	Mukul Mohindra & Jitesh Kumar Jain	The latest edition of the book is an up-to-date, concise, and comprehensive bundle to address theory and practical exams as well as the current pattern of exams. The key features of the book are: ✓  Simplifies and thoroughly covers orthopaedic problems that are on the edge, including the spine, polytrauma, metabolic bone disorders, arthritis, skeletal dysplasia, brachial plexus palsy, thoracic outlet syndrome, and soft tissue sarcomas. ✓  New chapter on sports injuries and their recovery is introduced. ✓  Offers more than 1000 well labelled photos with similes that show all clinical and radiological symptoms in orthopaedics as well as commonly used tools and implants. ✓  Discusses High-Yield Points at the conclusion of each topic that are directed towards the prevalent style of multiple-choice questions (MCQs) ✓  Includes questions from previous year’s MCQs with textual references for the answers.
Orthopedics Quick Review (OPQR)	Apurv Mehra	OPQR has emerged as the go-to option for PG aspirants and is the best-selling book for orthopaedics globally. The key features of the book are: ✓  Succinct is exam-oriented material. ✓  Flowcharts that are self-explanatory. ✓  Images and diagrams that complement the text can help pupils comprehend fundamental ideas more clearly. ✓  Simple to remember mnemonics. ✓  After each chapter are possible Retro Analysis questions. ✓  “Summary of Ortho” is provided for quick review. ✓  Every student aiming for the Top Ranks in the PGMEE must read OPQR because Ortho is a subject that determines rank. ✓  In each topic, important topics are underlined. ✓  Genuine High Yield Questions with a fast revision designation are provided.
Chapman’s Comprehensive Orthopaedic Surgery (5 Vols.)	Michael W Chapman & Michelle A James	The latest edition of Chapman’s Comprehensive Orthopaedic Surgery is practically a brand-new book. The key features of the book are: ✓  Offers in-depth coverage of the diagnosis, medical, surgical, and rehabilitative aspects of musculoskeletal problems. ✓  The 285 chapters and 12 speciality divisions are included. ✓  Detailed coverage with more than 13,000 additional tables, flowcharts, and 3D images in full colour are provided. ✓  Surgery methods are bulleted. ✓  Boxes on Pitfalls, Complications, and Tips & Tricks are provided. ✓  ‘Information at a glance’ is crucial thanks to the authors’ point of view. ✓  The digital edition comes with improved functionality and a video library. Videos are included in Chapters 45, 48, 138, 156, 158, 193, 259, 263, and 281.
Essential Orthopaedics	Maheshwari & Mhaskar	After 25 years of publication, this book is still a favourite among students studying medicine and physiotherapy. The key features of the book are: ✓  It becomes “all-in-one” book for UG students and residents when an annexure on “Clinical Methods” is included. ✓  Free online resources include clinical cases, multiple-choice questions, and practise tests. ✓  There are Competency/Learning Goals listed at the start of each chapter. ✓  A section titled “Additional Information: From the Point of View of Entrance Exams” is provided at the end of each chapter. ✓  Reviewing the definitions of various orthopaedic terminologies is made easier by the annexed “Orthopaedic Terminology” section. ✓  Each chapter ends with a question titled “What have we learned?” for a fast recap. ✓  For improved readability and comprehension, some graphics and X-rays have been changed.
Manipal Manual of Orthopaedics	Vivek Pandey	The book is highly beneficial for MBBS students and may also be beneficial for postgraduates to review orthopaedics at the fundamental level. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is readable, accurate, and pertinent. ✓  For ease of comprehension, the whole material has been split into two sections: trauma and cold orthopaedics. ✓  Includes pertinent graphs, flowcharts, schematics, and radiographs. ✓  For ease of comprehension and writing in exams, the majority of conditions provide the therapy as an algorithm with a written explanation. ✓  Has a tonne of revision boxes with Key Information, Notes, and Points-to-Remember highlighted. ✓  A brief description of the anatomy precedes each condition, which is then followed by pathology, clinical signs, a diagnosis, tests, and treatments.

Best Books for Obstetrics & Gynecology

 

Book	Author	Description
DC Dutta’s Textbook of Obstetrics (Including Perinatology & Contraception)	Hiralal Konar	The book is developed in accordance with the Competency-based Medical Education Curriculum (NMC). The book is suitable for the undergraduates, postgraduates and nursing students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is written in clear, plain language. ✓  Every chapter has the same, uniform information. ✓  790 line drawings, pictures, photographs, boxes, tables, flowcharts, MR images, ultrasonograms, and skiagrams are included to enhance the text. ✓  Each chapter has undergone a comprehensive update and reorganisation to reflect modern obstetric treatment of the highest calibre. ✓  A lot of revisions and updates have been made to Ch. 13 Normal Labor, Ch. 39 Intrapartum Fetal Monitoring, Ch. 31, 32, and 33 on Perinatal Care, and Ch. 34 Analgesia and Anesthesia in Obstetrics. ✓  For ease of navigation, a list of the most used acronyms has been supplied. ✓  The supplemental reading material for advanced learning can be accessed with the QR codes. This strategy aims to support and get graduate students ready for their numerous exams.
DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology	Hiralal Konar	The book’s user-friendly layout and thoroughness make it a great resource. The key features of the book are: ✓  This book’s presentation, which includes high-quality graphics and design, voluminous illustrations (366), excellent pictures (330), and imaging studies, is what makes it stand out. ✓  There are several tables, boxes, flowcharts, and algorithms included for repeatability and simplicity of study. ✓  The essential points are at the end of each chapter to offer an outline overview of the whole chapter. This is helpful for quick and simple review. ✓  Viva questions along with explanations and answers are given for the clinical and viva voce portions of the exam.
Self-Assessment & Review Gynecology	Sakshi Arora Hans	The gold standard book for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Completely edited and updated from Novak’s Gynecology, 15th edition, and William’s Gynecology, 3rd edition. ✓  Updates are based on the most recent revisions and recommendations. ✓  Contains a clear, full-color depiction of the text. ✓  Contains over 158 coloured pictures, USG, HSG photos, equipment, and specimens. ✓  Includes annexure tables for last minute revision. ✓  Includes all most recent tumours staging and treatment (Cervix, Vulva as per FIGO guidelines). ✓  Must-read material for taking a gynaecology test, including undergraduates, international medical graduates, interns, and post-interns.
Self-Assessment & Review Obstetrics	Sakshi Arora Hans	The latest edition of the book is extensively edited and rewritten. The key features of the book are: ✓  Content is thoroughly revised according to Williams Obstetrics 25/e. ✓  With the most recent question trends in mind, new pattern questions have been introduced to each chapter. ✓  Additional questions with images. ✓  Added a manual for CTG. ✓  Includes annexures for last-minute changes. ✓  Includes details of significant Instruments, Dopplers, and Ultrasounds. ✓  Topic of HIV is included.
Bedside Clinics in Gynecology	Arup Kumar Majhi	The book is intended mostly for MBBS students, but would be quite helpful for postgraduates as well. The key features of the book are: ✓  Chapters have been updated and edited as per the CBME curriculum. ✓  Topics covered in this book include history-taking and examinations, clinical cases, instruments, operations, specimens, and images. ✓  Includes all the topics that will be covered in the oral and practical exams. ✓  Enriched with 330 graphics and over 845 unique pictures.
Ward Rounds in Obstetrics & Gynecology	K Srinivas & Sunanda R Kulkarni	This book is quite beneficial for the UG students and residents. The key features of the book: ✓  Incorporates case-based discussions and a problem-based learning strategy. ✓  Each chapter begins with the case history, examination, and investigations before addressing the topic followed by pertinent questions and pertinent responses. ✓  The book offers skill-transfer exercise in the form of in-depth case analyses, which are extremely helpful for both undergraduate and graduate students. ✓  This book’s discussion of intensive care unit (ICU) rounds, postoperative ward rounds, the examination of a victim of sexual assault, cardiac disease in pregnancy discussed by both the obstetrician and the cardiologist, some frequently encountered problems like vulval hematoma and fever in pregnancy, the use of bedside ultrasound in obstetrics, the discussion of invasive foetal procedures, etc. are some other unique aspects of the book.

Best Books of Anaesthesiology

 

Book	Author	Description
Anaesthesia Essence	Pritesh Singh & Usica Chandan	It is a must buy book for PG entrance examinations. The key features of the book are: ✓  The latest edition of the book is thoroughly revised and updated including exam pattern questions, important annexures and image-based questions. ✓  The content is updated from Miller 8th/e, Morgan 5th/e, Lee 13th/e, Wiley 7th/e, Barash 7th/e, Stoelting 6th/e, Dorsch 5th/e. ✓  The book also provides the free online exam support.
Short Textbook of Anaesthesia	Ajay Yadav	Most suited book for those pursuing undergraduate and graduate degree. The key features of the book are: ✓  Best for last-minute revision. ✓  Concentrates on the subjects that appear most frequently in pre-PG exams. ✓  A handy reference for anaesthetists in practice. ✓  Nine parts separate the text to make reading more comfortable. ✓  Key points are highlighted in italics. ✓  Each chapter’s conclusion includes a list of key points. ✓  Tabular overview of the themes has been provided, wherever necessary. ✓  Recent advancement and innovations in medications, tools, and methods are also included in the content. ✓  The American Heart Association’s (AHA) 2015 update serves as the foundation for CPR recommendations.

Best Book for Radiology

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Radiology	Rajat Jain & Virendra Jain	It is the one of the bestseller books on the topic. The key features of the book are: ✓  Based on information and ideas from the CT and MRI (Haaga), CME Series, Som and Curtin 5th/e, Dahnert 8th/e, Grainger 6th/e, Sutton, Scott, and Rumack 4th/e textbooks. ✓  Updated image-based questions. ✓  New INI-CET pattern questions are included. ✓  Contains questions from the JIPMER, WBPGMEE (2018), All India (1991–2012), AIIMS (Nov 2021–1991–2012), DNB (2012–1991–2018), and Other State Examinations (2016-1991). ✓  The content included in General Radiology, Systemic Radiology, Radiotherapy and Nuclear Scans, Few Thumb Rules in Radiology, Image-based Questions is not only intended to prepare students for exams but also for their future clinical training and day-to-day hospital employment.

Best Book for Dermatology & Venereology

 

Book	Author	Description
Review of Dermatology	Saurabh Jindal	It is best-selling book on Dermatology for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✓  Full-color images that are incorporated with the chapter’s content. ✓  Mnemonics, high-yield charts, and memory aids are included. ✓  Conceptual diagrams have been hand-simplified in each chapter. ✓ For last-minute revision, there is a short review section at the end of each chapter. ✓ Based on Fitzpatrick 8/e, Rook’s 9/e, Bolognia 3/e, Habif 5/e, Andrews 11/e, McKee 4/e, King Holmes 4/e, Lever 10/e, and IAL 2/e of the newest standard textbooks. ✓ 807 additional full-color images and 200 additional full-color graphics are included.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here

 

With the time and technology, medical field has undergone major changes in terms of diagnostic measures, operative and non-operative approach leading to advanced medical techniques like precision medicine, gene editing, artificial intelligence, stem cell therapy, artificial disc replacement, robotic assisted surgery, minimally invasive spine surgery and lot more. Advancement has led to the path of much diversified and specialized medical fields.

Spine surgery is a specialised field that involves the diagnosis, treatment and surgical management of conditions that affect the spine and surrounding structures. Spine surgeons play a crucial role in providing both surgical and non-surgical treatments to help patient achieve better spine health and overall quality of life. There are various sub-specialties within the spine surgery, including Orthopaedic spine surgery, Neuro spine surgery, Pediatric spine surgery, Spinal Oncology, Spine deformity surgery, and minimally invasive spine surgery.

Spine surgery is a complex medical procedure which requires specialised knowledge and expertise. While both orthopaedic surgeons and neurosurgeons can perform the spine surgery, there are differences in their training, experience and approach to the surgery depending on the different spine deformity or injury. The experience and expertise of the surgeon are important factors to consider while choosing a surgeon for spine surgery. Both types of surgeons have a stake in the spine since it serves as the junction between the neurological system and the musculoskeletal.

It is crucial to understand that sophisticated spine surgery is performed by both neurosurgeons and orthopaedic surgeons. These specialisations are combined in the newly developing specialty of “spinal surgery”.

Neurosurgeons for Spine Surgery:

Neuro spine surgeons are medical doctors who specialise in the diagnosis, treatment and surgical management of conditions that affect the nervous system, including the spine, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. They are trained to diagnose and treat conditions such as brain tumors, head injuries, spinal cord compression, herniated discs spinal stenosis and traumatic spinal injuries. Neuro surgeons who specialize in the spine surgery undergo additional training and subspecialty course in the domain that focusses on the spine conditions.

The neuro spine surgeons also treat conditions like stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease and spinal cord injuries. During the training period, they gain expertise in the latest surgical techniques including the microsurgery and minimally invasive surgery as well as non-surgical treatments.

Neuro spine surgeons work closely with other specialists, including neurologists, pain management physicians, oncologists and physical therapists to provide the comprehensive approach to patient care.

Orthopaedic Surgeons for Spine Surgery:

Orthopaedic spine surgeon is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting the spine, including vertebrae, discs, spinal cord and surrounding ligaments and muscles.

They perform variety of spine surgeries such as spinal fusion, laminectomy, and discectomy. Orthopaedic surgeons who specialise in the spine surgery focusses on the structural issues of the spine, such as alignment and stability, and may use instrumentation such as rods, screw and cages to correct the issue. They are trained in both surgical and non-surgical treatment of conditions such as herniated disc, degenerative disc diseases, scoliosis, spinal stenosis, spinal deformities to alleviate pain and restore function. They opt for the minimally invasive techniques for spine surgery, which lead to less pain and quicker recovery.

Orthopaedic Surgeon and Neurosurgeon for Spine Surgery

The main difference between the orthopaedic spine surgeon and neuro spine surgeon is their training and focus on the area of treatment.

Neurosurgeons who perform spine surgery opt a different approach than the orthopaedic surgeons. Neurosurgeons focus mainly on nerves and spinal cord and may use the techniques such as microdisectomy and laminotomy to decompress the nerves and treat conditions like spinal cord tumors and vascular malformations whereas orthosurgeons focus mainly on structural issues of the spine and related muscles and ligaments.

While both the orthopaedic spine surgeon and neuro spine surgeon perform the similar surgeries such as spinal fusion, laminectomy and discectomy, their training and approach may differ based on their specialty. Orthopaedic spine surgeons may approach spine surgeries from a biomechanical perspective while neuro spine surgeons may focus more on the neurological aspects of spine surgery.

It is prime responsibility of a spine surgeon to utilize the latest technologies and techniques that includes minimally invasive surgery to provide the most effective treatment options for their patients. In some cases, both the specialists work together as part of a multidisciplinary team to provide the best possible care.

How to become a Spine Surgeon in India?

After completing grade 12^th with the PCB stream, becoming a spine surgeon in India typically involves the following steps:

1. • Obtain a medical undergraduate degree: First, you will need to obtain a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) degree from a recognized medical college or university in India. This typically takes five and a half years to complete including one-year internship at a hospital or medical institution recognized by the Medical Council of India (MCI). For getting admission into medical college for MBBS degree, you will be mandatorily required to clear the NEET-UG entrance exam with the required cut off score and rank.
     Click here to read complete information regarding NEET-UG entrance examination.

 

1. • Obtain a master’s degree: To become a spine surgeon, you have options to choose your PG specialty. You will need to clear the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test-postgraduate (NEET-PG) or INI-CET entrance examination for admission to a MD/MS program in India. You can pursue a 3-year Master of Surgery (MS) degree in Orthopaedics or General Surgery.
     Click here to enroll in the MBBS courses online for NEET-PG preparation.
     You also have an option to pursue DNB course in Neurosurgery/Orthopaedics. For admission to DNB courses, you must clear the DNB-PDCET entrance examination with the required cut off and score.

 

1. • Complete a Residency: After completing your master’s programme, you will need to complete a residency program in area of your PG expertise. This will provide you with the necessary clinical experience and training in the surgery specialty.

 

1. • Obtain a super specialisation degree: After completing MS/DNB degree, you may need to further pursue the super specialisation in Neurosurgery (M.Ch) for pursuing a career as a spine surgeon. You have to successfully clear the NEET-SS entrance examination for admission to M.Ch courses.

 

• • Fellowship in Spine Surgery: After completing the residency of your respective medical course, you need to pursue a fellowship program in spine surgery to specialize in this field. Students who have earned a DNB, MD, MS, M.Ch, or DM in the relevant speciality are eligible for entry to the NBEMS fellowship programme. Anyone with a medical degree in DNB/MS Orthopaedics or DNB/M.Ch Neurosurgery who have passed the FET (Fellowship Entrance Exam) and meets the requirements for admission to fellowship programmes at the various NBE-accredited medical colleges, institutions, and hospitals in India is eligible to participate in the centralised counselling for the allocation of FNB Spine Surgery seats solely on the basis of merit and preference. There are many institutes in India which offer fellowship program in spine surgery.
    Click here to learn latest surgical techniques with the case-based spine surgery videos by the eminent surgeons.

 

• • Obtain your fellowship and License: Student who pass the Fellowship Exit Examination are recognised as Fellow of the National Board (FNB) or Fellow of the National Board – Post Doctoral (FNB-PD) at the NBEMS annual convocation.

Once you have received your certification and completed your education and training, you will need to obtain a license to practice as a spine surgeon in India. You will need to register with the Medical Council of India (MCI) or the respective state medical council in order to practice medicine in India.

As a spine surgeon, it is important to keep your knowledge and skills up to date by regularly attending conferences, seminars, and workshops on spine surgery. This will help you stay updated with the latest techniques and advancements in the field and latest surgical and non-surgical approaches.

It is highly important for the medical students to carefully choose their medical specialty and subspecialty. Medical professional pursuing the course or fellowship in neurosurgery or orthopaedics and is interested in the spine surgery specialty can enroll in online spine surgery courses 2023. These courses provide detailed real life case demonstrations of spine surgery.

Orthopaedic surgeons and neurosurgeons may learn about the most recent methods and techniques in the field of spine surgery from the Ganga Videos on Spine Surgery course, a collection of 50 spine surgery videos. It includes minimally invasive and neurosurgical techniques, as well as treatments for spinal deformities, all carried out by renowned and skilled surgeons. The key feature of the course includes 10 hours of video lectures, 31 lecture notes, over 60 benchmark trials, and 150 self-assessment questions.

This spine surgery online courses include video lectures that demonstrate operations together with the clinical information about the patient, pertinent images, a brief explanation of the process, the actual surgical procedure, potential problems, post-operative treatment, and follow-up.

Brief summaries of the important topics are discussed in the lectures to help the candidates. Multiple-choice questions that are given at the conclusion of each lecture allow applicants to gauge their level of comprehension of the subject. To improve students’ understanding, video lectures and study guides are supplemented with clinical research investigations and benchmark trials.

Overall, becoming a spine surgeon in India requires a significant amount of education and training and lot of hard work and patience, but it can be a rewarding career for those who are dedicated to help patients with spine-related conditions.

The second year of MBBS is quite important as it includes all the foundational subjects. Microbiology, Pharmacology, and Pathology subjects are included in the second year of the MBBS curriculum. They serve as a strong foundation in the MBBS journey and hence, conceptual clarity over these subjects is a must for every medical student. Apart from the three subjects, the second-year curriculum includes AETCOM (Attitude, Ethics, Communication Module), Sports and extracurricular activities, postings, and a pandemic module. All the students must refer to the latest edition of the books during the study so that they remain updated with the latest advancements in the subject and newly added chapters and modules according to the new CBME pattern.

There are a variety of books available in the market but choosing the right one is crucial. One must choose a standard book that is in lucid manner and includes highly illustrative images, flowcharts, tables, must-know topics, questions with explanations, and most of all, it must be according to the new CBME pattern.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 2^nd year students:

Best Books on Microbiology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Microbiology	Authors	Description
Essentials of Medical Microbiology	Apurba Sastry & Sandhya Bhat	Apurba Sastry’s Essentials of Medical Microbiology book is highly recommended to MBBS students for conceptual clarity and to score high in MBBS prof exams as well as competitive examinations. The book has two parts: Part A includes General Microbiology, Immunology, and Hospital Infection Control (Infectious Diseases), and Part B includes Systemic Microbiology. The key features of the book are: ✔ This is the only textbook in “Clinical Microbiology” that is centered on infectious syndromes, updated according to the CBME curriculum. ✔ It has simple language and bulleted writing that is easy to read. ✔ Summary boxes for laboratory diagnosis and therapy are provided separately for easy viewing. ✔ After each chapter, there are essay questions with clinical case studies and MCQs. ✔ The book additionally has a Covid-19 chapter and the AETCOM module. ✔ References are taken from the CDC and WHO websites, the Harrison 20th edition, the Mandell 9th edition, the Bailey & Scott’s 14th edition, as well as many health care programmes and recommendations including the ICMR, NCDC, RNTCP, NACO, NVBDCP, IAP Immunization, and GPEI. ✔ Only textbook in microbiology that is designed according to the PG entrance exams.
Review of Microbiology and Immunology	Apurba Sastry & Sandhya Bhat	The Key features of the book are: ✔ The latest edition of the book includes the most recent laboratory diagnosis, therapy, and epidemiology in every chapter. ✔ The book includes updates on bacterial medication resistance and information on the Zika virus, Ebola virus, polio eradication, Dengue vaccine, vaccine-derived polio viruses (vdpvs), and MERS-CoV. ✔ Newer molecular techniques (lamp, real-time PCR, biofire film array, etc.) as well as CSSD, Malditof, Vitek, and Bact/Alert Virtuo are featured. ✔ The epidemiology of meningococcal meningitis, pneumococcal vaccinations, DPT vaccine, TB (genexpert, mgit, truenat, drug susceptibility testing methodologies, most recent RNTCP recommendations), melioidosis, scrub typhus, and the yaws eradication campaign have all undergone significant updates. ✔ Updated laboratory findings for hbv and HCF diagnosis, therapy, and PEP. ✔ Updates on the poliomyelitis vaccine schedule, epidemiology, and end game strategy are also covered. ✔ Completely updated with the most recent references from Harrison (19th and 20th editions), Park (24th edition), Jawetz (27th edition), Apurba Sastry’s Essentials of Medical Microbiology (2nd edition), and Ananthanarayan (10th edition). ✔ Separate annexures section with pertinent, quick-fire subjects for exams are provided. ✔ Sections including immunology, parasitology, and mycology are given more attention. ✔ Contains several tables, flowcharts, and mnemonics that aid students in understanding.
Self-Assessment & Review Microbiology & Immunology	Rachna Chaurasia & Anshul Jain	The key features of the book are: ✔ “Revision at a Glance,” a single unit that highlights the most crucial aspects. ✔ Mnemonics and simple text to make learning easier. ✔ Offers a comprehensive treatment of parasitology and immunology. ✔ Citations from more recent printings of classic works, such as Harrison 20/e, Ananthanarayan 10/e, Jawetz 27/e, etc. ✔ Presents the most crucial information in a style that is simple to recall, including flow diagrams and tabulation. ✔ Detailed explanations of the most recent NEET question types.
Ananthanarayan and Paniker’s Textbook of Microbiology	R Ananthanarayan and CK Jayaram Paniker Editor: Reba Kanungo	The latest edition of the book is aimed at integrating microbiology in a system-based approach to human disease. The book includes sections on General Microbiology, Immunology, and Microbiology as Applied to Infectious Diseases. The key features of the book include: ✔ Recent developments in disease detection, molecular diagnostics, quality assurance, infection prevention and control, public health and epidemiology, and preventative techniques, including national programs, have been covered in up-to-date information. ✔ The format of the discussion is the same for all syndromes, and it includes information on the important etiological agents of each system, their disease spectra, pathogenesis, clinical features, epidemiology, and the strategy for laboratory diagnosis and treatment of each of the clinical entities described. ✔ For quick reference and memory, each chapter in this part includes one or more tabular columns summarising the causes of the numerous syndromes associated with each organ system. ✔ The organisms included in these tables are color-coded according to their respective organ system etiological relevance.

 

Best Books of Pathology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Pathology	Authors	Description
Textbook of Pathology	Harsh Mohan	Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology is one of the bestselling books on Pathology for MBBS students. The key features of the book are: ✔ There are 30 chapters in total in the updated version, divided into three sections: Systemic Pathology (Ch. 15–30), Haematopoietic and Lymphoreticular System (Ch. 11–14), and General Pathology (Ch. 1–10). There are also three appendices. ✔ “Must-know” boxes after each topic summarising essential elements for a quick review of the material in a very short amount of time. ✔ After most chapters, one or more clinical cases based on a prevalent or significant disease relevant to that chapter are provided, together with a brief history, examination results, and any subsequent research discoveries. ✔ The addition of significant review questions (both long-answer type and short notes on subjects) at the end of each chapter, to help the student prepare and visualize what to write in the test, is another new feature of the redesigned version. ✔ The updated baby book includes short-answer questions that are frequently asked during viva-voce examinations as well as newer MCQs that now include explanations. ✔ Newer and Modified Images: Prof. Ivan Damjanov graciously provided schematic, gross images, and photomicrographs for the better understanding of the students.
Essentials in Hematology and Clinical Pathology	Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai	The Key features of the book are: ✔ Over 135 drawings, 27 photomicrographs, 18 pictures, and 146 tables have been provided to make learning simple and quick. ✔ Essay questions, quick-answer questions, and more than 300 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are included to help students to assess their understanding of the key ideas. ✔ Appendices 1 and 2 include Reference Values of Frequently Performed Important Laboratory Tests and Recent WHO Classification of Tumors of Hematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues, respectively. ✔ Disorders of Red Cells, Disorders of White Cells, Disorders of Hemostasis, and Clinical Pathology make up the book’s four parts. ✔ Tables, diagrams, flowcharts, and key boxes for memorizing easily.
Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates Pathology	Ramadas Nayak	The primary goal of the “Ramadas Nayak’s Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates—Pathology” is to provide students with a solid understanding of pathology and, as a result, insight into the etiology, pathogenesis, pathology, and disease course. The key features of the book are: ✔ This version is a comprehensive guide for passing all pathology exams. ✔ Better quality photomicrographs or illustrations have been used in place of figures and illustrations in a few chapters. ✔ The book is divided into three sections: general pathology, hematological and clinical pathology, and systemic pathology. This book has 28 chapters. ✔ This book fills a void by offering fundamental knowledge to a student in a nutshell.
Rapid Review of Hematology	Ramadas Nayak & Sharada Rai	This hematology book, provides an undergraduate with the fundamental knowledge of the subject in a nutshell. Rapid Review of Hematology is designed for undergraduates in medical, dental, and paramedical science.  The key features of the book include: ✔ Illustrations in various colors (e.g., for etiopathogenesis, clinical presentation, complications, peripheral blood smear, and other relevant laboratory tests). ✔ Bullet-pointed text for concise reading. ✔ Text reinforced with 59 flow charts and tables, 25 photomicrographs (including X-rays and clinical photos), and 64 drawings. ✔ Text boxes to emphasize important points. ✔ Clinical scenario interpretation.
Review of Pathology and Genetics	Sparsh Gupta & Gobind Rai Garg	The latest edition of the book is based on the NBE pattern. The key features of the book include: ✔ Special points like “NEET busters” have been added for last-minute review. ✔ IBQs with Solutions ✔ Golden points are provided at the start of each chapter. ✔ Most authenticated question banks. ✔ PGMEEs 2021-1985 Solved MCQs with all current questions for 2022. ✔ A new format that is organized chapter-by-chapter to make it easier for the students to learn antegrade. ✔ In the text, new conceptual and clinically significant material has been emphasized. ✔ Many flowcharts and diagrams are used to swiftly review the concepts. ✔ References are taken from the Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease, 10th edition. ✔ Golden nuggets and other details from the 10th edition of Robbins are provided separately. ✔ Questions from previous year exams are underlined in the text. ✔ Simple-to-understand Mnemonics. ✔ Chapter on significant stains and bodies is included.
Comprehensive Image-Based Review of Pathology	Sushant Soni	It is the only image-based book with more than 650 images with their explanation. The book covers questions based on the NEET PG exam pattern. The book has highly Illustrative images and is easy to comprehend.

 

Best Books of Pharmacology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Pharmacology	Authors	Description
Essentials of Medical Pharmacology	K.D. Tripathi	Undoubtedly, K.D. Tripathi’s Essentials of Medical Pharmacology is one of the best pharmacology books for medical students. The key features of the book are: ✔ Chapters that have been revised and updated to reflect new medications and treatment recommendations. ✔ The book contains a wide range of subjects, from fundamental pharmacological ideas to real-world therapies and the advancement in medication and treatment. ✔ Novel medications that work by altering the function or turnover of these molecules have been included in a new chapter on “Nitric Oxide and Vasoactive Peptide Signal Molecules.” ✔ Drugs that are marked in India have been given priority, and their top brand names and dosage forms are included. ✔ A list of acronyms is supplied at the book’s opening. ✔ All newly marketed medications are mentioned. ✔ Charts that categorize drugs visually, aiding in the development of pictorial memory. ✔ There have been several new figures, charts, tables, and highlight boxes added. ✔ Place a strong emphasis on “evidence-based medicine” by often citing reliable research and endpoint trials. ✔ The “Problem Directed Study” at the end of the majority of chapters offers a therapeutic decision-making activity. ✔ Contains appendices on Solutions to Problem Directed Study, Prescription in Pregnancy, Drugs in Breastfeeding, and Drugs and Fixed Dose Combinations Prohibited in India. ✔ The book concludes with a brief list of pertinent resources for additional study.
Review of Pharmacology	Govind Rai Garg & Sparsh Gupta	It is one of the best-selling books on the subject. A must-buy book for the NEET PG, INI-CET, and other competitive examinations. The book has a question bank in every chapter including MCQs and IBQs. The key features of the book include: ✔ Facts and ideas based on KDT 8th, Katzung 13th, Goodman Gilman 13th, Harrison 20th, and CMDT 2022 newest versions. ✔ A distinct chapter with explanations of mathematical issues. ✔ Includes IBQs and MCQs with explanations. ✔ In each chapter, recent advancements are mentioned. ✔ “New FDA-approved Drugs” annexures are separate documents. ✔ Mnemonics can help you recall important information about novel medications. ✔ Annexures of the “Drug of Choice” for various ailments. ✔ The benefits of both antegrade and retrograde study. ✔ Simple to-remember mnemonics.
Pharmacology for Medical Graduates	Tara V Shanbhag, Smita Shenoy	The key features of the book are: ✔ Questions based on the format used by examiners for both theoretical and practical sections. ✔ Language is simple to grasp because of the concise headers and specific pharmacological descriptions. ✔ Information is presented clearly and point-by-point, which is helpful for UG students preparing for exams. ✔ Adding basic illustrations, self-explanatory flowcharts, tables, and student-friendly mnemonics to the text. ✔ New subjects have been presented, such as CNS stimulants, drugs for the treatment of psoriasis, and medications for acne vulgaris. ✔ We acknowledge the inclusion of definitions, and treatment plans by WHO standards (for TB, leprosy, malaria, and HIV), RNTCP guidelines (for TB), and JNC guidelines (from 2003) for the categorization of blood pressure. ✔ The Tara Shanbhag’s Pharmacology for Medical Graduates fully revised edition will be helpful for both working physicians and medical students.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) is an undergraduate degree in medicine. The course is of four and a half years, followed by one year of compulsory rotational internship. There are a total of 19 subjects in the MBBS curriculum.

There are three subjects in the first year of the MBBS, Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Physiology. There are numerous books available for the MBBS subjects but choosing the right set of books is highly important.

Here’s a list of recommended books for MBBS 1^st year students:

Best Books of Anatomy for MBBS Students:

Subject: Anatomy	Author	Description
Self-Assessment and Review of Anatomy	Rajesh K Kaushal	The book is written in simple language with labelled diagrams, tables, and flowcharts making it easier for students to read and learn. The book has 11 chapters, including general anatomy, embryology, histology, neuroanatomy, head and neck, back, thorax, upper limb, abdomen, pelvis, and lower limb. It provides conceptual clarity over all the topics including the clinical applications. Every chapter includes questions along with a detailed explanation.
New Across: A Complete Review of Short Subjects	Saumya Shukla, Siddharth Dixit, Anurag Shukla & Khushi Shukla	It is one of the best-selling MCQ books on short subjects. To make the students learn easily, the subjects are divided into theory and MCQs along with concise notes for each chapter. The book contains tables, figures, flowcharts, and mnemonics to help students prepare and memorize well. It is even recommended as one of the best books for NEET-PG preparation.
Human Anatomy	BD Chaurasia, Krishna Garg	The book follows the CBME pattern along with the latest updates and advancements. The chief feature of the book includes the hand-drawn line diagrams by Dr. BD Chaurasia and color codes in the drawings. FAQs and MCQs are structured in the ‘clinical mode’. Early Clinical Exposure (ECE) has been offered in the form of a specific case’s signs, symptoms, investigations, and treatment. Viva voce questions, molecular regulation, clinic-anatomical problems, ossification, and dissection (steps) are all included in the book.
Gray’s Anatomy for Students	Raveendranath Veeramani, Sunil Jonathan Holla, Parkash Chand & Sunil Chumber	It is the gold standard book for anatomy. The updated edition incorporates ground-breaking elements like set introductions, chapter summaries, and flowcharts to aid learning. Levels I, II, and III are listed as the “structures to be identified in a dissection,” which correspond to the content that is “must know,” “desirable to know,” and “good to know,” respectively. Updates on imaging methods have been made, and dissection has received the appropriate amount of emphasis to help students understand the value of having a solid understanding of the relevant anatomy. To encourage readers to refer to the visuals while learning, more figure numbers are mentioned in the text. The beginning of each chapter includes helpful review aids. The cranial nerves have received more attention by having their pertinent details described with numerous extra examples and flowcharts.
Cunningham’s Manual of Practical Anatomy	Rachel Koshi	This textbook is the perfect practical anatomy book for undergraduate students because it features clear language that is easy to read. Each dissection starts with learning objectives, and the dissection lab makes it simple to follow with detailed step-by-step instructions. Full colour, completely revised artwork brings the amiable explanations to life. Anatomy’s relationship to clinical medical practice is explained in new clinical application boxes and radiological images throughout the book. Multiple-choice questions at each section’s conclusion allow students to rapidly review their understanding before looking up the solutions in the appendix.

 

Best Books of Biochemistry for MBBS Students:

Subject: Biochemistry	Author	Description
Self-Assessment and Review of Biochemistry	Rebecca James Perumcheril	The book is a complete concept-based study with the latest references and includes image-based information, high-yield topics, mnemonics, and tables. It is highly recommended for the competitive entrance examinations as it comprises the previous year’s questions. The book contains the chapter reviews based on Harper’s 31st ed, Lehninger’s 7th ed, and Robbin’s 9th ed and clinically correlated with facts from Harrison’s 20th ed, Nelson’s 20th ed, and CMDT 2019.
Textbook Of Biochemistry for Medical Students	DM Vasudevan, Sreekumari S & Kannan Vaidyanathan	The book is accepted as one of the textbooks of Biochemistry by MCI. This edition’s inclusion of clinical case studies in nearly every chapter is one of its main draws. The students will be assisted in determining the clinical applicability of biochemistry through this feature. In most of the chapters, additional points that are clinically pertinent are added. The latest advancements in molecular biology have been included. There are 50 chapters in all and 6 parts in this textbook. Nearly every chapter concludes with essay questions, quick notes, multiple choice questions, and viva-voce style questions. This textbook includes roughly 1,000 figures, 200 tables, and 200 boxes, all of which make the book more user-friendly for students.
Biochemistry	U. Satyanarayana & U. Chakrapani	The key features of the book include Self-assessment exercises, Origins of Important Biochemical Words, Common Confusables in Biochemistry, Practical Biochemistry Principles, Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Case Studies with Biochemical Correlations, and Reference Biochemical Values. The book features a four-line verse at the start of each chapter, then the text with clinical correlations, a summary, and self-evaluation exercises. The content and graphics are engaging, and the proper headings and subheadings are in bold to make it easier to read and remember. It includes the fundamentals (Bioorganic and Biophysical Chemistry, Tools of Biochemistry, Immunology, and Genetics), Confusables in Biochemistry, Origins of Biochemical Words, Principles of Practical Biochemistry, and Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory for novices to study Biochemistry simply. The book contains highly illustrative colorful images which help the students memorize easily.
Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry (South Asian Edition)	Denise R. Ferrier SAE Editors: Ritu Singh, Rajeev Goyal	The book explains how biochemistry relates to routine medical care through interdisciplinary, chapter-based cases and “Clinical” boxes scattered throughout. With a clear outline format, a tonne of full-color illustrations, and chapter summaries, learning and studying are made simple. It includes an expanded chapter on macronutrients and micronutrients and much more. The chapter on blood clotting is a bonus point of the book.
Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry	Kathleen Botham, Peter J. Kennelly, Owen McGuinness, P. Anthony Weil, Peter Kennelly, Victor Rodwell	The book includes the following important topics: Toxic naturally occurring amino acids, extraterrestrial biomolecules, computer-aided drug design cells, basophils, and eosinophils, the role of the complement cascade in bacterial and viral infection, secreted mediators of cell-cell signalling between leukocytes, the hazard of antioxidants that down-regulate radical signalling for apoptosis and increase risk of cancer and much more. With case studies emphasizing the clinical relevance of biochemistry, review questions following each of the eleven sections, “Objectives” boxes defining the goals of each chapter, and tables encapsulating crucial information, this authoritative guide presents information in a way that helps you retain everything you read. More than 600 pictures are included in this book, which also contains a section on the topic’s biomedical value in each chapter.

Best Books of Physiology for MBBS Students:

Subject: Physiology	Author	Description
Principles of Physiology	Debasis Pramanik	The use of coloured boxes to highlight complex physiology themes in the text is one of the book’s most appealing elements. The themes are broken down into twelve sections, with the first section providing a thorough explanation of general physiology. The second section discusses the physiology of nerve and muscle. All of the pertinent hematology-related subjects are outlined in the third section. The circulatory system, the digestive system, and the excretory system are all covered in detail in the fifth, sixth, and seventh sections, respectively. The respiratory system is covered in detail in the fourth section. The ninth section goes into detail about metabolism. The neurological system, endocrine system, and reproductive system are all carefully described in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh sections, respectively.
Review of Physiology	Soumen Manna	This book’s content is arranged into eight divisions, each of which contains nineteen chapters, according to the various organ systems. General physiology, nerve-muscle physiology, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the central nervous system, the renal and gastrointestinal systems, and the endocrine and reproductive systems are among these sections. Each chapter begins with a brief introduction to the topic before moving on to multiple-choice questions (MCQs) and their clear, short, and accurate explanations, which are supported by citations to relevant research papers and/or standard textbooks. Important details have been retained in the “side boxes” so that students can quickly and easily review the text. This edition also includes a brand-new chapter called “Male and Female Reproductive Physiology”.
Crisp Complete Review of Integrated Systems Physiology	S Krishna Kumar	This book provides straightforward explanations of physiological fundamentals. It includes information from pharmacology and pathophysiology integrated at the conclusion of each topic. It includes an analysis of ECG questions, an analysis of questions pertaining to acid-base disorders, an analysis of calculations pertaining to respiratory physiology, image-based questions at the conclusion of each chapter, and significant one-liner IOLs.
Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (South East Edition)	John E. Hall, Michael E. Hall Adaption Editors: Mario Vaz, Anura Kurpad, Tony Raj	It includes broader clinical coverage of degenerative diseases like obesity, metabolic and cardiovascular issues, and Alzheimer’s disease. Flowcharts and flow diagrams are used to simplify complex concepts and processes for easier comprehension. Better knowledge of Physiology by the more than 1000 expertly made illustrations and sketches that are included. It provides a clinically oriented viewpoint, connecting fundamental physiology and pathology, and highlighting key cellular and molecular mechanisms in clinical medicine. Based on the most recent research in the field and updated throughout using the Guyton and Hall Textbook of Physiology, 14th edition. The book’s information has been revised to reflect all topics covered under the new MCI curriculum.
Textbook of Physiology	A.K. Jain	The book has two volumes. Over 700 figures, 2000 multiple-choice questions, and more than 1000 study questions are included. For a better understanding of clinical topics, numerous clinical images have been included. Each chapter’s study questions have been changed in accordance with standards provided by the Medical Council of India (MCI). General Physiology, Blood, Nerve, and Muscle Physiology, Digestive, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, and Excretory Systems are all included in Volume I. The organ systems covered in Volume II are the nervous system, the reproductive system, the endocrine system, metabolism and nutrition, and the special senses. The South Asian Edition’s main characteristics are extensive material revisions and updates, a lengthy section on micronutrients, and blood coagulation.

 

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

Can you crack NEET PG in 2 months? The answer is yes! However, cracking NEET PG in 2 months is no easy feat and requires serious dedication, diligence, and hard work. Cracking NEET-PG in 2 months is possible with frequent revision of all the concepts an aspirant has learned in his/her MBBS years. There is no doubt that NEET PG is one of the toughest exams in India but learning how to crack NEET PG in first attempt is even harder. Given the vastness of the syllabus, the fierce competition, and the limited time frame, let’s figure out exactly how you can channel all your motivation towards learning how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months.

1. Create A Dedicated Study Schedule – Forming a study schedule that details exactly what topics you need to study and when to study is essential in the path to cracking NEET PG in 2 months. By analysing the syllabus and assessing your weak points, you can create a highly effective and productive timetable for NEET PG 2023 preparation in 2 months. By creating a personalised and productive timetable for NEET PG preparation in 2 months, you can get started each day without having to waste time deciding what you need to study as it will all be planned out for you to simply follow.

Here’s a 2 Months subject-wise revision plan for NEET-PG 2023:

Part	Number of days to complete each subject	Total number of days
PART 1
Anatomy	3 days	9 days
Physiology	2 days
Biochemistry	2 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	2 days
PART 2
Microbiology	2 days	12 days
Pathology	3 days
Pharmacology	3 days
Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	1 day
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	3 days
PART 3
Community Medicine & PSM	3 days	10 days
ENT	2 days
Ophthalmology	2 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	3 days
PART 4
Dermatology	1 day	13 days
Medicine	5 days
Psychiatry	1 day
Pediatrics	1 day
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	5 days
PART 5
Surgery	5 days	16 days
Anaesthesia	1 day
Orthopaedics	1 day
Radiology	1 day
Obstetrics & Gynecology	3 days
Solve NEET PG practice questions and previous year’s question papers	5 days
Solve one NEET-PG mock exam every two weeks to boost your preparation and manage time

Every aspirant has their own competencies so you can personalize the above shared plan according to your difficulty level of any subject.

2. Practice Previous-Year Papers – Studying past years’ papers can help you adjust to the method of questioning while also providing good practice. Your 2-month study plan for NEET PG 2023 should be loaded with as many relevant past papers and sample papers as possible. By slotting breaks to only attempt these papers after several rounds of revision, you can make the most out of your 2 month study plan for NEET PG 2023.

Click here to know the important topics of Pharmacology for NEET-PG.

3. Revise Thoroughly – Memorising and understanding such a large syllabus is not an easy task, especially when your plan rests on how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months. Thus, the answer for cracking NEET PG in 2 months comes through the form of repeated bouts of revision. Make sure you periodically revise topics you’ve already studied, either through mock tests, other self-assessment, or even repeatedly reading your notes. Try flowcharts, mnemonics, flashcards to memorize well.

Click here to know the important topics of Community Medicine for NEET-PG.

4. Learn To Sacrifice – If you want to know how to prepare for NEET PG 2023 in 2 months, the simple solution is learning to prioritise and sacrifice certain things. During your 2 month study plan for NEET PG 2023, you will come across some topics that are personally too difficult or time-consuming, so plan to clear your concepts of these topics first. For this, you can resort to online platforms like DigiNerve which provides best content by India’s top faculty.

Click here to know the important topics of Microbiology for NEET-PG.

Now that the question of ‘Can you crack NEET PG in 2 months’ has been answered, and guidelines for an effective timetable for NEET PG preparation in 2 months have been given to you, get started! For more tips on how to crack NEET PG 2023 in first attempt, click here and clear your concepts with DigiNerve.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

Q1. When will be NEET PG 2023 exam conducted?

Ans. NEET-PG 2023 exam will be conducted in the month of March.

Q2. Will NEET-PG 2023 be held?

Ans. Yes, NEET-PG will be held in 2023 as per the notifications till now. The NExT exam is likely to be held from year 2024.

Q3. How many times a year is NEET PG held?

Ans. The NEET-PG exam is held once in a year.

 

 

National Eligibility Cum Entrance Examination-Post Graduate (NEET PG) is a medical entrance exam that goes around in the mind of MBBS students all the time, and getting a good rank to secure an MD/MS seat is a dream for all MBBS graduates.

Remember,

Perseverance makes all the difference.

Getting a high rank in the exam is a tough task but not impossible. To score 600+ marks in NEET PG 2023, you must plan an effective preparation strategy keeping in mind subject weightage, the pattern of the exam, high-yielding topics, and best preparation books. Considering the vast syllabus and the competition, an aspirant should start the preparation in the early phase itself.

Here are some reliable preparation tips to secure a good rank in the NEET PG 2023 entrance examination.

Preparation Tips for NEET PG 2023

1. Make an effective preparation strategy

Keeping in mind the time left for the exam, prioritize your schedule. Make a realistic plan you can stick to and devote your time according to the topics, including those that you haven’t started, those that are unclear and those that you only need to revise once. Time management and work-life balance are the two factors that should be kept in mind for an effective plan especially during postings. Knowing the exam pattern and subject weightage would also help you prepare a better preparation strategy.

Keeping in mind the last year exam date (12^th March 2022), below is a 3-months effective preparation strategy to crack NEET PG 2023.

Subject-wise time division:

Part	Number of days to complete	Total days
PART 1
Anatomy	5 days	13 days
Physiology	3 days
Biochemistry	3 days
Revision	2 days
PART 2
Microbiology	5 days	19 days
Pathology	5 days
Pharmacology	4 days
Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2 days
Revision	3 days
PART 3
Community Medicine & PSM	7 days	15 days
ENT	2 days
Ophthalmology	3 days
Revision	3 days
PART 4
Dermatology	3 days	17 days
Medicine	5 days
Psychiatry	3 days
Pediatrics	3 days
Revision	3 days
PART 5
Surgery	7 days	26 days
Anaesthesia	3 days
Orthopaedics	3 days
Radiology	3 days
Obstetrics & Gynecology	6 days
Revision	4 days

Keep the rest of the time for quick revision and practicing previous years NEET PG practice questions.

2. Analyze your level of understanding

Analyze your level of understanding of the syllabus and subjects for the NEET PG exam. Divide your time and make your study plan as per your level of understanding in the subject and module. Don’t ignore the subjects which seem boring to you as doing so can prove to be the wrong decision ever. It is hence advised to make short notes and flashcards of the important dates, events, and information for quick revision, especially in scoring subjects such as PSM.

3. Set your target

As per your preparation strategy, set your daily, weekly, or monthly targets and keep up your pace. Completion of the tasks will boost your confidence every time. For instance, you can set your target as completing at least two previous year’s papers in a week depending upon your schedule. It is advised that while solving the question papers, make sure you read about the incorrect options along with the correct answer to upskill your preparation. Always read the question and options carefully. Don’t jump to the conclusion and try to rule out the incorrect options while practicing and reading about them.

Don’t get overburdened with tasks. Take breaks.

4. Revision

Don’t just read topics but get your concepts cleared to memorize retention. Learning and revising should go simultaneously. If you have read any topic today then revise it within 5-10 days once and don’t leave it for later as you’ll be loaded with more topics by then. So, regular revision is a must to brush up on your concepts. This technique of balancing learning and revising helps in memorizing well and reduces last-minute pressure.

Always prefer to study from your notes including flowcharts, tables, and mnemonics for NEET PG exam.

For instance,

A. The mnemonic ‘SAMPLE history’ is to remember all the events for the diagnosis.

Signs and symptoms

Allergies

Medications

Past medical history

Last meal

Events

B. Another mnemonic to remember for pain is SOCRATES.

Site

Onset

Character

Radiation

Associated symptoms

Timing

Exacerbating /relieving factors

Severity (/10)

 

5. Practice MCQs

Solving MCQs gives you exposure to the NEET-PG 2023 exam pattern. After completing each topic, go through its self-assessment questions which benefit your learning in two ways; one, you’ll be able to assess your level of understanding of the topic, and second, you’ll know the type of MCQs which can be framed from the topic in the exam.

This practice also helps you analyse the topics which in general have more direct questions, or IBQs, clinical case-based questions, and more. This helps you enhance your problem-solving skills.

6. Solve Previous year’s questions

Solving PYQs is a must. This makes you familiar with the exam pattern and monitors your progress. It is advisable to practice PYQs with your timer on. Time management plays a vital role in the examination. PYQs of the NEET-PG exam will help you get familiarized with the NEET PG 2023 exam paper pattern along with the type of questions asked. This practice also instils confidence in you.

7. Focus on high-yielding topics

Make a proper list of subjects with their high-yielding topics and make sure you don’t miss any for the exam. Make proper notes of these topics and revise properly while solving MCQs and PYQs.

Click here to know the important topics of Microbiology for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Community Medicine for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Pharmacology for NEET-PG.

Click here to know the important topics of Pathology for NEET PG.

8. Prioritize your health

While keeping up your pace for NEET PG 2023, don’t exhaust your body and mind. Keep yourself healthy to study effectively. It can be easy to develop harmful habits like bingeing on junk food, skipping workouts, isolating oneself excessively, or even sinking into a depressed state of mind while preparing for NEET PG.

However, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, eating wholesome foods, engaging in brief bursts of much-needed socialization, and regularly monitoring your mental health is of the utmost importance, particularly if you want to score 600+ in the NEET PG 2023. Make sure to take proper sleep, minimize your level of stress, and meditate. It is important to stay focused and have a positive mindset. Have faith in yourself. Keep yourself hydrated and stay away from distractions.

To get conceptual clarity on MBBS courses online, click here.

 

Ever since medicine has been in existence, so has pathology. Knowledge of pathology is essential to understand the illness, from the cause and investigation of the disease to diagnosis and treatment. Learning all the terminologies used in pathology lab reports is also important. It will be very difficult to treat patients and prevent disease progression without a complete understanding of the subject.

The whole subject, as far as an undergraduate student is concerned, deals with

1. Etiology: The cause of the disease
2. Pathogenesis: Steps in which certain events occurred that finally led to the disease
3. Histopathological examination, of any disease: Involves dealing with gross appearance and microscopic examination.

Branches of Pathology

Pathology subject has two types of branches:

1. Morphological Branches include:

• Histopathology
  • Surgical pathology
  • Experimental pathology
  • Forensic pathology and autopsy work
• Cytopathology
  • Exfoliating cytology
  • Interventional cytology
  • Hematology

2. Non-morphological Branches include:
   • Clinical pathology
   • Clinical biochemistry
   • Microbiology
   • Immunology
   • Medical genetics
   • Molecular pathology
   • Molecular cytogenetics

Important topics of Pathology for MBBS students

General pathology forms the base for the units that lie ahead.

General pathology will introduce you to terms that will be used time and again, so if you do not understand those terminologies, you will never be able to comprehend systemic pathology. For example, terms like hyperplasia, metaplasia, etc. will be used very commonly, and if you are not aware of what they mean, then it will be very hard to understand diseases.

Hematology is another part of Pathology. You must do your best while studying this unit, because all your basic knowledge about examining the blood test reports, and your skills in investigating a patient of anemia, will come from here.

Other high-yielding pathology topics for NEET PG 2023 include Inflammation, Anemia, Macrocytic Anemia, Acute Leukemias, Chronic Leukemias, Thalassemia, Lymphadenopathy, etc.

From the systemic pathology, units like the Kidney, GIT, Lungs, and Hepatobiliary system are highly important  for NEET PG aspirant. Not just this, Tuberculosis and Diabetes Mellitus are two diseases you cannot skip, because of their increasing prevalence in India.

Watch below video lectures on high-yielding Pathology topics by top Pathology faculty.

Recommended books for Pathology

One of the favorites among students and the highly recommended book is Jaypee publishers’ “Textbook of Pathology” by Prof. Harsh Mohan. The book has a single volume and the language and content are easier to understand. The histopathology diagrams include both microscopic pictures and hand-drawn images, which makes it easier for students to memorize and reproduce those images in the exams. There are appropriate flowcharts and a lot of tables, which take lesser time to read and learn.

Another recommended book for Prof exam preparation is Prof. Ramadas Nayak’s “Pathology Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates”. The book has covered all the topics lucidly with illustrations, tables, flowcharts, etc. The book is highly recommended for notes and revision.

For the practical part of pathology, there is another book by the author, Prof. Harsh Mohan, titled, ‘Practical Pathology’. This book will be very helpful for lab sessions and practical examinations. It has histopathology of most of the slides and specimens that form a part of your practical viva.

Paper Pattern of Prof Exams

After the advent of Competency-Based Medical Education in 2019, the pattern of examination changed. Now, you will have two papers of 100 marks each, unlike earlier, where two papers of 40 marks each were taken. There will be a practical for 100 marks after your university exams. Hence, pathology as a total will carry 300 marks.

How to study Pathology?

You will often hear from your teachers that, Pathology is a very volatile subject, which is true. But does that mean you will never be able to learn it? Well, absolutely not. The key to mastering pathology is revision. Revision, revision, and only, revision.

Studying things once and expecting to remember you entirely in the exam will never work. Rather, regularly reading and revising will help you a lot in the long run.

Here are a few tips that will help you a lot to study Pathology in MBBS:

Stick to one book

Do not refer to multiple books. Doing so will only create confusion. Also, while revising for exams, you do not have a lot of time to revise your syllabus, hence you mustn’t increase your load by referring back to multiple books. Thoroughly read Harsh Mohan’s Textbook of Pathology and practice the diagrams well. You can practice the self-assessment questions from various resources.

Find online Pathology courses

It has been time and again proven that our pictorial and visual memory is very strong and long-lasting. Hence, watching videos, and attempting image or video-based questions related will help you a lot and feed things into your memory for a longer duration.

DigiNerve offers Pathology for UnderGrads online course, developed and mentored by the most renowned authors, Prof. Harsh Mohan, Prof. Ramadas Nayak, and Dr. Debasis Gochhait. The course has been enriched with their knowledge and experience which will help in fulfilling your study needs completely. All the topics are arranged in a sequential hierarchy to avoid confusion. The video lectures along with self-assessment questions and notes help you in concept-building. The lectures follow a case-based approach supported by video demonstrations. The lectures are richly illustrated including clinical, radiological, histological, and gross images along with flowcharts and tables for easy understanding and quick recall.

The course also focuses on practicals in pathology including gross specimens that are highly important for examination.

Make notes

Pathology subject is hefty, hence, keep your notes handy. This will help you to go through the highlights of each chapter in the least time during revision. Make tables and flowcharts while you study in class or watch video lectures. This will help you a lot in last-minute revision.

Practice diagrams

To have an edge over other students, you should practice diagrams frequently. Diagrams and flowcharts will fetch you more marks. You should be extremely well-versed in histopathology diagrams. The pathology book by Prof. Harsh Mohan provides excellent histopathology diagrams, which are easily reproducible in exams.

Pay attention in lab sessions

Do not ignore your practical classes. You can get to learn a lot in those few hours. You will get familiar with gross specimens and histopathology slides of various diseases there. Understand it all there and then, and half of your theory will be prepared in your lab only.

To get conceptual clarity with the help of MBBS courses online, click here.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q 1 – What is Pathology?

Ans : Pathology is referred to as the ‘study of diseases’. It is a branch of science that deals with structural and functional changes in diseases, which present with clinical signs and symptoms.

Q 2 – Why is it important to study Pathology?

Ans : It is important to study Pathology to understand the illness, from the cause and investigation of the disease to diagnosis and treatment. It becomes very difficult to treat patients and prevent disease progression unless you have a good knowledge of pathology subject. Learning all the terminologies used in pathology lab reports is also very crucial.

Q 3 – Which book should I read for Pathology?

Ans : “Textbook of Pathology” by Prof. Harsh Mohan is the most recommended pathology book for in-depth learning and scoring high in exams. Another recommended book for prof exam preparation is Ramadas Nayak’s “Pathology Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates”.

Q4 – Can I refer to online resources for studying Pathology?

Ans : Yes, online resources can be very helpful in concept building and learning. One such affordable and reliable resource is DigiNerve’s Pathology for UnderGrads course. The course is designed as per the new CBME curriculum. It consists of video lectures, notes, and self-assessment questions along with clinical case discussions and practicals in pathology.

 

INI-CET is a combined national-level entrance examination for admission to the medical postgraduate courses – MD, MS, DM (6 yrs), MCh (6 yrs), and MDS at INI institutes (Institute of National Importance). The INI-CET January session 2023 exam is around the corner. Getting admission to INI institutes is highly challenging and a dream for MBBS students. This is a highly competitive task to secure a seat in the renowned medical colleges in India.

Remember, Perseverance is the key.

The INI-CET exam is going to be held on 13^th Nov 2022 for admission to the AIIMS INI-CET January session 2023.

Mode and Scheme of INI-CET January 2023 exam

Particulars	Description
Mode of Examination	Computer-based test (CBT)
Duration	3 hours (180 minutes)
Number of questions	200
Types of questions	Objective type
Marking Scheme	+1 mark for every correct response and -1/3 for every incorrect response

 

Important things to know:

• If more than one candidate scores the same, then this tie-breaker situation is resolved by applying the following criteria sequentially:

1. 1. Less negative marks
   2. Older by age

• Candidates equal to 8 (eight) times the number of postgraduate seats available in each category will be called for the first and second rounds of seat distribution based on the INI-CET merit list.
• Spot Round Counseling will only be conducted if the seats will remain vacant even after the open round counseling.

List of Participating Institutes for INI-CET January 2023 Session

S. No.	Name
1	AIIMS, New Delhi
2	AIIMS, Bhopal
3	AIIMS, Bhubaneswar
4	AIIMS, Jodhpur
5	AIIMS, Nagpur
6	AIIMS, Patna
7	AIIMS, Raipur
8	AIIMS, Rishikesh
9	AIIMS, Bibinagar
10	AIIMS, Bhatinda
11	AIIMS, Deoghar
12	AIIMS, Mangalagiri
13	AIIMS, Raebareli
14	JIPMER, Puducherry
15	NIMHANS, Bengaluru
16	PGIMER, Chandigarh
17	SCTIMST, Trivandrum

 

Here’s the tentative seat distribution (Category-wise) for admission to various MS/MD/DM (6 years)/MCh (6 years)/MDS courses at AIIMS, New Delhi and other 12 AIIMS through the INI-CET entrance examination for the January session of 2023.

Table 1: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, New Delhi:

Courses	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	17	7	5	3	1	1
MD	Anatomy	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	Biochemistry	8	4	2	1	1	0
MD	Biophysics	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Community Medicine	9	5	2	1	0	1
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	5	1	2	1	0	1
MD	Emergency Medicine	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Geriatric Medicine	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Lab. Medicine	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Medicine	11	5	3	2	0	1
MD	Microbiology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	4	3	0	0	0	1
MD	Obstetrics & Gynecology	11	4	3	2	1	1
MD	Ophthalmology	6	3	1	1	1	0
MS	Orthopaedics	4	1	1	1	0	1
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	5	1	1	1	1	1
MD	Pediatrics	10	3	3	2	1	1
MD	Palliative Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MD	Pathology	10	4	3	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	6	1	2	1	1	1
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	10	5	2	1	1	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis & Internventional Radiology	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiation Oncology	4	3	1	0	0	0
MS	Surgery	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine	5	2	2	1	0	0
MDS	Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics	1	0	1	0	0	0
MDS	Pediatrics & Preventive Dentistry	2	0	1	0	0	1
MDS	Prosthodontics	1	0	1	0	0	0
MCh	Neuro Surgery M.Ch (Direct 6 year Course)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Paediatric Surgery M.Ch (Direct 6 year Course)	2	2	0	0	0	0
DM	Infectious Diseases DM(Direct 6 year Course)	4	4	0	0	0	0

Table 2: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bhopal:

Courses	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	6	5	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine	5	2	1	0	1	1
MS	ENT	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	3	1	0	1	0	1
MS	General Surgery	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynecology	3	1	0	1	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	3	1	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	4	2	1	0	1	0
MD	Pathology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Pharmacology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	2	0	0	1
MD	Radiotherapy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine & Blood Bank	2	0	0	1	1	0

Table 3: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bhubaneswar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	9	3	2	2	1	1
MD	Anatomy	7	3	2	2	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	3	1	0	1	1	0
MD	Community Medicine	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Dermatology	3	1	1	0	1	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	5	2	1	1	1	0
MS	ENT	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	General Medicine	3	2	0	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	6	2	2	1	0	1
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Nuclear Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Obst. & Gynecology	6	3	1	1	0	1
MD	Ophthalmology	2	0	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	6	4	1	0	0	1
MD	Pediatrics	5	2	1	1	1	0
MD	Pathology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Pharmacology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Physiology	6	2	1	1	1	1
MD	PMR	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	0	1	1	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis	3	2	0	0	1	0
MD	Radiotherapy	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine	3	1	1	1	0	0

 

Table 4: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Jodhpur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology & Critical Care	17	6	5	3	1	2
MD	Anatomy	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Community Medicine	6	2	2	1	1	0
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	4	2	1	0	1	0
MD	General Medicine	4	2	1	1	0	0
MS	General Surgery	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Microbiology	6	2	2	1	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	3	1	1	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Ophthalmology	4	2	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	1	0	1	1
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	6	2	1	1	1	1
MD	Paediatrics	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	PMR	4	2	1	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Radiology	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Transfusion Medicine & Blood Bank	2	1	1	0	0	0
MCh	Paediatric Surgery (M.CH. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
DM	Radiation Oncology (D.M. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0

 

Table 5: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Patna:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	18	8	5	3	1	1
MD	Anatomy	5	3	1	0	1	0
MD	Biochemistry	9	4	3	2	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	8	3	2	1	0	2
MD	Dermatology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MS	ENT	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	7	2	2	2	0	1
MD	FMT (Forensic Medicine & Toxicology)	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Medicine	6	5	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	OBG (Obstetrics & Gynaecology)	5	1	1	0	2	1
MD	Ophthalmology	4	1	1	1	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	7	2	2	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	5	0	2	1	1	1
MD	Pharmacology	3	3	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	7	4	2	1	0	0
MD	PMR	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiotherapy	2	0	2	0	0	0
MS	Surgery	5	2	1	1	0	1
MCh	Pediatric Surgery (MCh 6 Years)	3	3	0	0	0	0

Table 6: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Raipur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	13	4	4	2	1	2
MD	Anatomy	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	4	1	1	1	0	1
MD	Community Medicine	8	3	2	1	1	1
MD	Dermatology	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	8	3	2	1	1	1
MS	ENT	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	General Medicine	9	4	3	1	0	1
MS	General Surgery	8	3	3	1	0	1
MD	Microbiology	5	2	2	1	0	0
MD	Nuclear Medicine	1	0	0	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	7	2	1	2	0	2
MD	Ophthalmology	8	4	2	1	1	0
MS	Orthopaedics	5	2	1	1	0	1
MD	Pediatrics	7	3	1	1	1	1
MD	Pathology	8	4	2	2	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Physiology	2	0	1	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	4	1	1	1	1	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	1	2	1	0	0
MD	Radiotherapy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MDS	Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Pediatric and Preventive Dentistry (MDS)	1	0	1	0	0	0

Table 7: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Rishikesh:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	7	3	2	1	0	1
MD	Anatomy	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	4	2	0	0	1	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Dermatology & Venerology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Emergency Medicine	3	2	0	1	0	0
MS	ENT	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	General Medicine	4	3	1	0	0	0
MD	Geriatric Medicine	1	0	1	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	3	1	1	0	0	1
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Nuclear Medicine	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	8	4	2	1	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	6	4	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Pathology	5	3	1	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	2	1	0	0	0	1
MD	Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Physiology	3	2	0	0	0	1
MD	Psychiatry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Radiation Oncology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	4	2	1	0	0	1
MD	Respiratory Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MD	Transfusion Medicine	3	2	1	0	0	0
MDS	Periodontics (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (MDS)	1	1	0	0	0	0
MCH 6 Years	Pediatric Surgery (MCH 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Plastic, Reconstructive & Burns Surgery (M.CH. 6 Years)	2	2	0	0	0	0
MCh	Neurosurgery (MCH 6 yrs)	1	1	0	0	0	0

 

Table 8: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Nagpur:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	0	0	1
MD	Biochemistry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine	3	1	2	0	0	0
MD	Dermatology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Forensic Medicine & Toxicology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	3	0	2	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	3	0	1	1	1	0
MD	Microbiology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	3	1	1	1	0	0
MD	Ophthalmology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Otorhinolaryngology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	3	0	1	0	1	1
MD	Pathology	3	0	1	1	1	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	1	1	0	0	0	0
MDS	Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics (MDS)	0	0	0	0	0	0

 

Table 9: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bibinagar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anatomy	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Biochemistry	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	FMT	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	2	1	0	0	0	1
MS	General Surgery	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Obstetrics & Gynaecology	2	0	1	1	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	2	2	0	0	0	0
MD	Peediatrics	2	0	1	1	0	0
MD	Pathology	2	1	0	0	0	1

 

Table 10: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Bathinda:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anatomy	1	0	0	1	0	0
MS	General Surgery	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	2	1	0	0	1	0
MD	Ophthalmology	1	0	0	0	1	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	0	1	0	0	0

 

Table 11: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Deoghar:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Biochemistry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Community Medicine & Family Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Microbiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Anaesthesiology	1	0	0	1	0	0
MD	Anatomy	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	FMT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	Orthopaedics	1	0	0	0	0	1
MD	Pathology	1	1	0	0	0	0

 

Table 12: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Mangalagiri:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	2	0	0	1	0	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	2	1	0	0	1	0
MS	ENT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	OBG	2	0	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	2	1	1	0	0	0

 

Table 13: Tentative seat distribution for INI-CET January 2023 session at AIIMS, Raebareli:

Course	Subject/Specialty	Total Number of Seats	UR	OBC	SC	ST	EWS
MD	Anaesthesiology	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Anatomy	2	0	0	1	0	1
MD	Community & Family Medicine	2	1	0	0	1	0
MS	ENT	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	General Medicine	1	1	0	0	0	0
MS	General Surgery	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	OBG	2	0	1	0	0	1
MS	Orthopaedics	2	1	1	0	0	0
MD	Pediatrics	2	1	0	1	0	0
MD	Pharmacology	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Physiology	1	0	1	0	0	0
MD	Psychiatry	1	1	0	0	0	0
MD	Radiodiagnosis	2	1	1	0	0	0

 

Last-Minute Tips for INI-CET Exam:

• Candidates must carry all the asked documents such as INI-CET admit card, passport size photograph, valid photo ID proof, and a copy of MCI registration certificate with them on the exam day.
• Reverify all your documents before coming to the exam hall.
• Candidates are advised to go through all the guidelines issued by AIIMS for the examination.
• Candidates must reach the INI-CET exam center before time to avoid any chaos.
• Avoid Stress and be confident.
• Eat healthy and sleep well.
• Time management is a must before and during the exam.

To get conceptual clarity on the MBBS courses online, click here

MBBS course, in the initial two years, revolves around non-clinical and para-clinical subjects. These subjects form the foundation for the clinical subjects that are a part of the last two years of the course.

It has been more than two and a half years since COVID-19 began, and ever since then, lives have changed for the good and bad. More than anything else, what we know now as medicos is, that a single microorganism can do wonders when it comes to projecting virulence. Lately, due to those same reasons, this chapter in our microbiology book has gained importance, and this subject, as a whole, is now in the sheer limelight.

As medical students, it seems difficult to develop an interest in subjects that do not seem to have any visible application, like microbiology, and other non-clinical subjects, like biochemistry. However, irrespective of the specialty, you’ll be in, you will be expected to have complete knowledge of all your undergraduate subjects, and that is when you’ll be known as a Top Doc. For this reason, you can’t ignore any of your nonclinical subjects, no matter how boring they might seem.

Microbiology course for undergrads is not as disinteresting as most students think it is. Especially after the introduction of the new Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME), the way of learning and teaching microbiology has been improvised a lot whereas the core syllabus isn’t changed much. Earlier, it was based on organism-based approach, but it has now been completely changed to systemic approach, focusing on each of our body’s systems separately and then classifying diseases accordingly.

As an undergraduate, to excel in the university exams, you must know the examination pattern and the important topics of the microbiology subject.

Changes in the MBBS Prof Exam Pattern

The MBBS prof examination pattern is a little different from what batches before 2019 had appeared for. Earlier, the paper had 2 parts of 40 marks each, with 20 marks of practical. From 2019 batch onwards, the pattern has changed to 2 parts of 100 marks each, and a 100 marks practical, i.e., a total of 300 marks for each of the MBBS 2^nd year subjects. The exam now consists of MCQs, case scenarios, short answer questions, and long answer questions.

So, whenever you begin reading microbiology for your final exams, start from the beginning because the entire microbiology is an extension of general microbiology. If your general microbiology is weak, you will never gain confidence in the rest of the syllabus.

Recommended books for Microbiology for UnderGrads include “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” and “Essentials of Medical Parasitology” by Dr. Apurba Sastry and Sandhya Bhat.

Important Topics of Microbiology in MBBS

Let’s know the important topics in Microbiology from MBBS prof exam’s and entrance examination’s perspective.

A medico can easily get to learn all the important topics with Dr. Apurba Sastry’s “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” book. Besides the book, one can also get conceptual clarity with the online course – Microbiology for UnderGrads by Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This course is aligned with the textbook by the same author.

GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY MODULE

• Contributions of Louis Pasteur
• Koch’s Postulates
• Bacterial cell wall
• Flagella
• Bacterial growth curve (a must-know topic)
• Anaerobic culture methods
• Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
• Horizontal gene transfer
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Exotoxin vs endotoxins
• Isolation techniques for viruses
• Classification with examples (parasites and fungi)

IMMUNOLOGY MODULE

• Innate immunity vs acquired immunity
• Active immunity vs passive immunity
• Definitions of antigen, hapten, super antigens
• Structure of an antibody
• Various classes of immunoglobulins
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Basic mechanism of precipitation reaction and agglutination reaction
• ELISA (in detail)
• MHC
• Cytokines
• Hypersensitivity reactions with their types
• Mechanisms and examples of autoimmunity
• Mechanism of graft rejection
• Types and examples of vaccines

Before you begin reading the systems, there are chapters on sterilization and disinfection, which have gained more importance after COVID-19. These are highly important chapters because they will teach you basic things like biomedical waste management, PPE kits etc.

So, there are a few questions that are very frequently asked from
STERILIZATION AND DISINFECTION

• Healthcare-acquired infections (definition, and examples)
• The steps of hand washing (will rarely come as a theory question but this holds practical application)
• Types of masks
• Steps of donning and doffing
• CAUTI and VAP
• Definitions of sterilization, disinfection, and cleaning
• Autoclave
• ETO
• Disinfectants (according to the levels)
• Methods to test the efficacy of sterilant
• Color coding of dustbins
• Definition and management of needle stick injury
• Water surveillance

SYSTEMIC MICROBIOLOGY MODULE

Bloodstream & Cardiovascular Infections

• Infective endocarditis
• Acute rheumatic fever
• Fuo
• Typhoid
• Scrub typhus
• Brucellosis and leptospirosis
• HIV (in detail)
• Dengue
• Malaria
• Leishmaniasis
• African sleeping sickness
• Lymphatic filariasis
• Systemic candidiasis

Gastrointestinal Tract Infections

• Mechanism of diarrhea and agents
• Lab diagnosis of diarrhea
• Food poisoning
• Botulism
• Types of E.coli
• Shigella
• Cholera
• Rotavirus diarrhea
• Intestinal amoebiasis
• Giardiasis
• Intestinal taeniasis
• Trichura
• Entrobias
• Ascariasis
• Hookworm

The Hepatobiliary System

• Hepatitis
• Liver abscess
• Hydatid cyst

Skin & Musculoskeletal System Infections

• Diabetic foot
• Staph aureus infections
• Streptococcus pyogenes infections
• Gas gangrene
• Lab diagnosis of leprosy
• HSV infections
• VZV infections
• Measles
• Cutaneous leishmaniasis
• Cutaneous larva migrans
• Superficial mycoses

Respiratory Tract Infections

• Agents of respiratory tract infections
• Diptheria
• Pneumonia
• Tb (a very important topic for us as Indians because this disease is very common in our country)
• Influenza
• Coronavirus (which you cannot skip)
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Aspergillosis

CNS Infections

• Meningitis
• Tetanus
• Rabies especially the vaccine prophylaxis
• Cerebral malaria
• Sleeping sickness

Urinary tract Infections

• Pathogenesis of UTI
• Syphilis, especially the lab diagnosis
• Agents of UTI
• Chancroid
• Chlamydia infections

Miscellaneous Infections

• Congenital syphilis
• Oncogenic viruses
• Zoonotic infections
• Bite wound infections

You will also have to prepare for the practical exam, wherein, passing the practical exam is as important as the theory exam. Moreover, because it holds a weightage of 100 marks, you cannot go unprepared.

Click here to watch online microbiology video lecture snippets by Dr. Apurba Sastry.

Must know topics for practical examination

• Basic staining techniques, like gram staining and Zn staining, Albert staining
• Bacterial colony characteristics and their biochemical identification reactions
• Principles behind the reactions and their reagents.
• parasites and how to prepare mounts of stool specimens
• OSPE stations where several instruments used in the microbiology lab can be kept for spot identification.

Important Topics for Microbiology subject in MBBS (For NEET-PG and INI-CET entrance examinations)

During your MBBS, not just the university exams, but your focus should also be on the early preparation of your competitive exams if you dream to settle in a decent post-graduation specialty. There are two main exams currently being held in India, the INI-CET and NEET PG 2023/NEXT. The weightage of microbiology in the INI-CET is approximately 14-16 questions every year and in NEET PG 2023 almost 10 questions are asked every year.

Some of the important topics are mentioned below:

General Microbiology

Includes bacterial cell wall, bacterial toxins, hot air oven, autoclave, chemical antiseptics and disinfectants, disinfection in a healthcare setting, mac conkey agar, bacterial gene transfer (transformation, transduction, and conjugation), lytic and lysogenic phase of a bacteriophage life cycle, and bacterial growth curve.

Bacteriology

Includes morphology, virulence factors, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and lab diagnosis of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms-proteus, shigella, salmonella), Vibrio, and Mycobacterium (tuberculosis).

Slight overview of Neisseria, Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Brucella, Mycoplasma, wound infection (staph), and invasive diarrhea is important.

Cover UTI, STDs (Syphilis), Meningitis, and FUO.

Virology

Study Orthomyxoviruses: Influenza (Hemagglutinin, Neuraminidase, Antigenic drift, and shift), Hepatitis B, lab diagnosis, Corona, HIV, ELISA, and a slight overview of Herpes.

Cover Picornavirus: Polio, Rabies virus

Mycology

Include Classification, Dermatophytes, Mycetoma, Rhinosporidiosis, and Histoplasmosis.

Cover Opportunistic: Aspergillosis, Candidiasis, Zygomycosis, Cryptococcus, and Pneumocystis

Parasitology

Life cycles, morphology, lab diagnosis, and clinical manifestations of Ascaris, Trichuria, Enterobius, Echinococcosis (Hydatid cyst), Entamoeba, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium, Leishmania and Wuchereria, Taenia, Ancylostoma, and Toxoplasmosis.

Don’t miss out on these important topics to score high in exams. Undoubtedly, all of us have a different method of learning and DigiNerve has got you covered in all situations. If you are among those who grasp more from visual learning, Microbiology for UnderGrads is one of the best online microbiology course designed by renowned authors, Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This online microbiology course comprises highly illustrative video lectures and notes, along with self-assessment questions and case studies. The lectures follow the new CBME approach to provide conceptual clarity and score high in the prof as well as entrance examination.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What are the major topics of microbiology?

The important topics for microbiology include Bacterial cell walls, bacterial toxins, hot air ovens, autoclaves, chemical antiseptics, and disinfectants. In the Bacteriology module, Morphology, virulence factors, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and lab diagnosis of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Enterobacteriaceae (coliforms-proteus, shigella, salmonella), Vibrio, Mycobacterium (tuberculosis) and in Parasitology module, Life cycles, morphology, lab diagnosis, and clinical manifestations of Ascaris, Trichuria, Enterobius, Echinococcosis (Hydatid cyst), Entamoeba, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Plasmodium, Leishmania and Wuchereria, Taenia, Ancylostoma, and Toxoplasmosis are important topics for exams.

2. Is microbiology important for NEET PG?

Yes, microbiology is important for the NEET PG exam. Approximately, 10 questions come from the microbiology subject in the NEET PG entrance examination every year.

3. How to learn Microbiology for MBBS online?

A medico can subscribe to the online microbiology course or access the online video lectures available on youtube. Microbiology for UnderGrads is one of the best online microbiology courses designed by renowned authors, Dr. Apurba Sastry, Dr. Sandhya Bhat, and Dr. Deepashree R. This online microbiology course comprises highly illustrative video lectures and notes, along with self-assessment questions and case studies. The lectures follow the new CBME approach to provide conceptual clarity and score high in the prof as well as entrance examination.

4. Which is the best book for microbiology for MBBS students?

The recommended books for Microbiology for UnderGrads include “Essentials of Medical Microbiology” and “Essentials of Medical Parasitology” by Dr. Apurba Sastry and Sandhya Bhat.

 

The National Medical Commission (Undergraduate Medical Education Board) has issued new guidelines and the academic calendar for MBBS 2022-2023 batch on 12th Oct 2022.

As per the new NMC guidelines, the classes for the first-year MBBS batch will start on 15th Nov 2022.

Academic Calendar for the 2022-2023 MBBS Batch

According to the new NMC guidelines, there is a change in the academic calendar of MBBS 2022-2023. However, the duration of the MBBS course is the same i.e., 5.5 years including a one-year rotational internship.

For the academic year 2022-2023, the one-year compulsory rotational internship will start from the 1st June 2027 and end on 31st May 2028, as per the CRMI 2021 regulations.

The following guidelines have been issued by the NMC for the 2022-23 MBBS batch:

• The MBBS batch will commence on 15th Nov 2022.
• The college vacations and examination schedules may be notified as per the affiliated universities of the respective colleges.

Other board guidelines are as follows:

1. Regarding Electives – 2 blocks of 15 days each are to be adjusted by the colleges for
   • Pre/para-clinical branches
   • Clinical branches
2. In the 2022-2023 academic batch, the supplementary exams will be conducted with a gap of 1 month from the regular exams and the results will be declared within 15 days.
3. There shall be no supplementary MBBS batches.
4. The remaining rules and regulations shall remain the same as per the GMER (Graduate Medical Education Regulations) 1997. You can visit the site for GMER 1997 details: https://www.nmc.org.in/rules-regulations/graduate-medical-education-regulations-1997/
5. The Yoga and Family Adoption Program through village outreach shall continue for the 2021-2022 MBBS Batch.

Along with the changes in the curriculum and the guidelines mentioned above, a few more notifications have been issued by the NMC from the 2022 batch:

• The NMC has created an Anti-Ragging Committee and Dr. Aruna V. Vanikar, President, UGMEB has been appointed as the chairperson of the committee.
• In the NMC notification stated on 4 Oct 2022, the implementation of HMIS (Hospital Management Information System) is mandated in all medical colleges.
• The NEET UG counselling link is active from 11th Oct 2022 on the MCC official website: https://mcc.nic.in.

 

Click here to read about the NMC NExT Exam update 2023 including the guidelines, complete structure, exam dates and more.

Forensic Medicine & Toxicology is one of the important subjects, included in the 3^rd Prof of the MBBS curriculum. The word ‘forensic’ has been derived from the word ‘forensis’ which means forum. FMT course in MBBS makes a medico learn the application of the knowledge of forensic medical sciences to legal issues. Toxicology includes the study of toxic elements, poisons’ properties, activities, toxicity, fetal dose, detection, quantification, therapy, and autopsy results. In this course, a medico is well informed about their medico-legal responsibility during the practice. Thus, forensic toxicology focuses on the legal and medical consequences of the toxic effects of chemicals on humans. In US & Europe, Forensic Medicine is also known as Legal Medicine or State Medicine.

Objectives of FMT course in MBBS

• The course provides complete knowledge of the law in regard to medical practice, medical ethics, and code of conduct.
• It talks about the medico-legal facets of medicine.
• The purpose of the course is to make undergraduate students much capable of observing and legally inferring correct conclusions. The students are also made to learn the way of handling and keeping track of criminal cases or medico-legal cases in an integrated manner.
• It provides knowledge of the administration, relevant medical laws, procedures, and their requirements.
• The Forensic Medicine course must not be thought as just a passing subject, its significance is well-ascertained during medical practice.
• Practically, a medico must develop a basic awareness of the legal system, observe, and analyze cases carefully, and act calmly.

Course Content

The MBBS course curriculum of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology:

Part I: FORENSIC MEDICINE

• General Introduction
• Forensic Pathology
• Clinical Forensic Medicine
• Medical Jurisprundence
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Forensic Sciences

Part II: TOXICOLOGY

• General Toxicology
• Clinical Toxicology
• Environmental Toxicology
• Analytical Toxicology

Along with the theory lectures, the MBBS course curriculum also includes practical and demonstration sessions in Forensic Medicine & Toxicology.

Pre-requisite for success in FMT

The four things are pre-requisite for success in FMT:

• Power of Observation
• Power of Deduction
• Wide range of exact knowledge
• Power of constructive imagination

Tips on how to approach FMT the right way

1. Read from Recommended books

• “Review of Forensics Medicine & Toxicology (5^th edition)” by Dr. Gautam Biswas. The book has many features like, each chapter starts with the Learning Objectives, further categorized into (a) must know and (b) desirable to know topics. It also includes important topics, MCQs, image-based questions, and case studies at the end of each chapter.
• “Principles of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology” by Rajesh Bardale
• “Essentials of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology” by KS Narayan Reddy, and OP Murty

2. Focus on Conceptual clarity

A student must focus on clearing the concepts for a better understanding of the subject. Mugging up in medical sciences doesn’t help in the long run. FMT is a blend of theoretical medico-legal knowledge along with practical sessions on criminal cases, post-mortem cases, chemical injuries, and a lot more. So, it is important to clear all your doubts and focus on conceptual clarity to excel in the subject.

3. Simplify your learning with notes

Making notes help filter down the lengthy content of the syllabus. It helps in learning and memorizing concepts easily. It proves for a great benefit during the last-minute revision. Notes also help in memorizing the topics at the time of explanation during lectures and marking important points. They are the best for a quick revision before exams.

4. Focus on high-yield topics:

Some of the important topics in FMT are:

• Legal Procedure
• Identification
• Thanatology
• Asphyxia
• Injuries
• Rape
• General toxicology
• OPC poisoning
• Snakebite
• Medicinal poisoning

Watch this video to know the right way to approach FMT in MBBS

• Attend Case Demonstrations

Medical is not just reading books and learning. It is more of practical knowledge and application of the theory into the practical and real world. In medical science, case studies and demonstrations are a must. A medico should never skip any case demonstration session. They form a base for treating the patients in their medical practice efficiently. It is crucial to enhance your FMT learning with practical sessions and case studies. A medico can also understand the case demonstrations via visuals and 3D imaging available in the online MBBS courses.

6. Memorize well

The easiest and the best way to memorize is to learn through flowcharts, images, charts, and tables. Learning in a structured format helps in memorizing well in long run. It helps in correlating the topics and clearing the concepts. Try to make your mnemonics for learning to make the most of your visual memory.

7. Practice Assessment questions

The best way to analyze your learning is to go through maximum self-assessment questions. It helps in a recap of the topic studied. It also gives a green light to the conceptual clarity of the topic. It not only improves knowledge but is highly beneficial from an exam perspective. A medico can opt for online FMT courses that provide frequently asked self-assessment questions.

Online Lectures to boost your learning

The Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course has been developed and conducted by a renowned faculty and author, Dr. Gautam Biswas, who is known for his publications “Review of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology”, “Recent Advances in Forensic Medicine and Toxicology volume-1 and 2”, and “Manual of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology”.

The course is well equipped with highly illustrative video lectures with 1400+ self-assessment questions and worthy notes. Case scenarios and case demonstrations are also included in the online FMT course.

The lectures for the course interestingly cover every relevant topic. The course’s content is clear and succinct with flowcharts, animations, brief videos, photographs, tables, differentiation, and line diagrams to help students understand concepts better. It includes case studies at the very beginning and discussion at the end of sessions along with live videos to explain the concept/procedures. Relevant MCQs have been integrated in every lecture including few image-based MCQs after each topic are also provided with explanation. It covers points to remember at the end for viva and forthcoming NEET PG 2023 exams. The FMT online course is designed for medical students to help them be ready for both their university exams and the NEET PG/NExT Exam.

To get conceptual clarity on Clinical Forensic Medicine, Click here.

Table of Content – Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course

• Orientation
• General Information
• Forensic Pathology
• Clinical Forensic Medicine
• Medical Jurisprudence (Medical Law and ethics)
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Forensic Laboratory investigation in medical-legal practice
• Thanatology
• General Toxicology
• Pharmaceutical Toxicology
• Sociomedical Toxicology
• Jurisprudence and Forensic Medicine – Qbank
• Toxicology – Qbank

All these modules include detailed sub-topics as per the CBME curriculum.

Scope of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology

• Forensic Scientist
• Forensic Expert
• Clinical Investigator
• Criminologist
• Research Associate
• Forensic Medicine Professor
• Jobs at Intelligence Bureau
• Forensic Analyst at Investigation firms
• Manager Forensic Advisory
• Forensic Pathologist
• Medical Officer
• Toxicologist

A medico must keep all senses open while dealing with FMT cases and willingness to work is a must.

FAQs

1. Where can I study FMT online?

Dr. Gautam Biswas’s Forensic Medicine & Toxicology for UnderGrads course is an online FMT course which is well equipped with highly illustrative video lectures, concise notes and 1400+ self-assessment questions. Case scenarios and case demonstrations are also included in this course.

2. What is FMT in MBBS?

FMT discloses the medico-legal facets of medicine. The purpose of the course is to make undergraduate students much capable of observing and legally inferring exact conclusions. The students are also made to learn the way of handling and keeping track of criminal cases or medico-legal cases in an integrated manner. A medico is well informed about their medico-legal responsibility during their medical practice.

3. How do I pass forensic medicine in MBBS?

Make sure not to skip any lecture and case demonstration sessions. Make notes and study on regular basis. You can also opt for an online FMT course to boost your learning with the help of video lectures, case demonstrations, notes, and self-assessment questions for practice.

 

A cataract is referred to as the development of any opacity in the lens or its capsule. It may occur either due to the formation of opaque lens fibers (congenital and developmental cataracts) or due to a degenerative process leading to the opacification of normally formed lens fibers (acquired cataracts).

Classification:

The Etiological Classification includes the following types of cataracts:

• Congenital and Developmental Cataract
• Acquired Cataract
• Senile cataract
• Traumatic cataract
• Cataracts in systemic diseases
• Electric cataract
• Radiational cataract
• Toxic cataract

The Morphological Classification includes the following types of cataracts:

• Capsular Cataract
• Subcapsular Cataract
• Cortical Cataract
• Nuclear Cataract
• Polar Cataract

SENILE CATARACT

Senile cataract is also known as Age-related cataract and is the most common type of acquired cataract. It affects equally all persons of either sex above the age of 50 years. The condition is usually bilateral, but in most cases, one eye is affected before the other.

ETIOLOGY

Some of the risk factors associated with Senile cataracts:

1. Age: It is the most important factor.
2. Sex: Its prevalence is greater in females.
3. Heredity
4. Ultraviolet Irradiations: It is responsible for the early onset and early maturation of senile cataracts.
5. Dietary factors: Diet deficiency in certain proteins, amino acids, and vitamins (riboflavin, vitamin A, C, E).
6. Dehydration Crisis
7. Smoking: When a person smokes, it leads to the accumulation of pigmented molecules like 3-hydroxykynurenine and chromophores, which lead to the yellowing of the lens.

HOW LENS LOSES ITS TRANSPARENCY?

Lens gets affected in different ways in nuclear and cortical senile cataracts. In cortical cataracts, there is a decrease in the soluble crystalline lens proteins, amino acids, and potassium associated with an increase in the concentration of sodium, which ultimately results in over hydration of the lens. While in nuclear cataracts, there is age-related nuclear sclerosis associated with dehydration and compaction of the lens. It is associated with an increase in water-insoluble proteins.

STAGES OF MATURATION

1. In-nuclear type of Cataract

The sclerotic process continues and leads to the hardening of the lens and decreases the ability of accommodation. The changes start from the centre and spread towards the periphery slowly.

2. In-cortical type of cataract

Firstly, there is a stage of lamellar separation which is the earliest sign where the formation of vacuoles occurs in the cortex. These changes are reversible. It is followed by a stage of an incipient cataract where wedge-shaped or saucer-shaped opacity is seen. Then comes the final three stages of cataracts: immature, mature, and hyper mature (morgagnian and sclerotic) cataracts.

CLINICAL FEATURES

The clinical features include the symptoms, signs, and complications.

Symptoms:

1. Glare
2. Uniocular diplopia
3. Colored halos around light
4. Poor colored discrimination
5. Black spots in front of the eye
6. Image blur and misty vision
7. Deterioration of vision

Signs:

1. Visual acuity: It is 6/9 to PL+ and PR in all quadrants
2. Test for iris shadow: It is seen in immature cataracts.
3. Colour of lens:

• In nuclear cataracts: amber, brown, black, reddish
• In immature senile cataract: greyish white
• In mature senile cataract: pearly white
• In morgagnian hyper mature cataract: milky white
• In sclerotic hyper mature cataract: dirty white

4. Morphology of lens: It is best seen by slit lamp examination.
5. Distant direct ophthalmoscopy:

• Absence of opacity: reddish yellow fundal glow observed
• Partial cataractous: black shadow against the red glow observed
• Complete cataractous: no red glow observed

Complications:

1. Phacoanaphylactic uveitis
2. Lens-induced glaucoma
3. Subluxation or dislocation of the lens

Click here to watch the best online video lectures on lens and cataract.

MANAGEMENT OF CATARACT IN ADULTS

1. NON-SURGICAL MANAGEMENT

To delay the progression of the disease:

• Vitamin E and aspirin can be taken
• Topical preparations containing iodide salts of calcium and potassium can be taken

2. 2. To treat the cause of cataract: control diabetes, remove cataractogenic drugs, removal of irradiations
   3. To improve vision in early stages of cataract: prescription of glasses, arrangement of illumination, use of dark goggles, and mydriatic agent.

2. SURGICAL MANAGEMENT

Indications:

1. Visual Improvement
2. Medical Indications
3. Cosmetic Indications

PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION AND WORKUP

1.) Ocular examination

It includes the following parameters:

• Visual status assessment
• Pupil
• Anterior segment evaluation
• Intraocular pressure
• Examination of lids, conjunctiva, and lacrimal apparatus
• Dilated fundus examination
• Retinal function tests
• B- scan ultrasonography
• Electrophysiological evaluation
• Keratometry, corneal topography, and biometry

2. General medical examination of the patient

The medical examination should include the following:

• History of current medication
• Any family history
• Investigations

3. Preoperative medications

The preoperative prescribed medication includes:

• Antibiotics
• IOP lowering agents
• Mydriatic agent
• Anaesthetic agents

4. Surgery

• Earlier, couching was done in which the cataractous lens was pushed into the vitreous cavity, and it was the first surgery introduced.
• Then, crude extracapsular cataract extraction was done but soon it became unpopular due to marked complications.
• Later, intracapsular cataract extraction was introduced but nowadays it is not performed due to complications. It is reserved only in cases of subluxated or dislocated lens.
• Now comes the modern technique of extracapsular cataract extraction, which is the preferred method in all cases of cataract surgeries.

OVERVIEW OF EXTRACAPSULAR CATARACT EXTRACTION SURGERY:

In this method, the anterior capsule’s major portion is removed along with the anterior epithelium, nucleus, and cortex leaving behind the intact posterior capsule.

Indications:

• For almost all types of cataract surgeries in adults and children unless contraindicated.

Contraindications:

• In the subluxated or dislocated lens.

        Advantages :

• Universal operation
• Posterior chamber IOL can be implanted after ECCE
• Postoperative vitreous-related complications are not seen
• Incidences of postoperative complications are much less like endophthalmitis, cystoid macular edema, and retinal detachment.
• Postoperative astigmatism is less
• Incidence of secondary rubeosis in diabetics is reduced

Different Techniques of Extracapsular Cataract Extraction:

1. Conventional extracapsular cataract extraction
2. Manual small incision cataract surgery
3. Phacoemulsification
4. Femtosecond laser-assisted cataract surgery

Presently, the phacoemulsification technique has become the preferred method of cataract extraction worldwide because the complications are much lesser as compared to other methods of cataract extraction.

However, in countries like India, manual small incision cataract surgery has the advantages of sutureless surgery as well as a low-cost alternative to phacoemulsification.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUES FOR CHILDHOOD CATARACTS:

The surgical methods opted for the childhood cataracts, include:

1. Lens aspiration
2. Lensectomy

INTRAOCULAR LENS IMPLANTATION:

IOL is the method of choice for correcting aphakia.

Types Of IOLs:

• Based on the method of fixation in the eye, the different types of IOL are:

1. Anterior chamber IOL
2. Iris-supported lens
3. Posterior chamber lenses

• Depending upon the material of manufacturing, the different types of IOL are:

1. Rigid IOLs
2. Foldable IOLs
3. Thinner foldable IOLs
4. Ultra-thin foldable IOLs

• Based on focusing abilities, the different types of IOL are:

1. Monofocal IOLs
2. Multifocal IOLs
3. Trifocal IOLs

• Special function IOLs, the different types of IOL are:

1. Aniridia IOLs
2. Implantable miniature telescope
3. Piggyback IOLs

• Spherical versus Toric IOLs
• Aphakic versus Phakic Refractive IOLs

Indications of IOL:

It is done in each and every case being operated for cataract unless and until it is contraindicated.

BIOMETRY is the calculation of IOL:

Nowadays online toric IOL power is calculated.

Equipment for Biometry:

1. A-Scan Ultrasonic Biometer
2. Optical Biometer

Techniques of IOL Implantation:

• Primary IOL Implantation refers to the use of IOL during any surgery for a cataract.
• Secondary IOL Implantation is done to correct aphakia in the previously operated eye.

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT FOLLOWING CATARACT SURGERY

1. The patient is asked to sit leaned back on chair for 30 minutes.
2. Any NSAIDs may be given orally for mild to moderate postoperative pain.
3. The bandage or eye patch is applied till the next morning. The eye is inspected for any postoperative complications.
4. Antibiotic eye drops are used 4 times a day for 7-10 days.
5. Topical steroids eye drops are given 3 to 4 times a day and are taken for 6-8 weeks.
6. Topical ketorolac or any other NSAIDs with eye drops are given 2 to 3 times a day for 4 weeks.
7. Topical timolol eye drops

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Frequently Asked Questions

1. What causes senile cataract?

Ans: Senile cataract etiopathogenesis is not exactly clear, but it is mainly due to the age factor. Other factors are also responsible like heredity, ultraviolet radiation, dietary factors, dehydration crisis, and smoking.

2. What is the most common type of senile cataract?

Ans: Nuclear sclerotic type is the most common of senile cataracts in which there is progressive sclerosis of the nucleus of the lens. It makes the lens inelastic and decreases the  accommodation ability, which hampers the light rays to pass.

3. Is senile cataract curable?

Ans: Yes, senile cataract is curable. It can be treated through surgeries like extracapsular cataract extraction and intracapsular cataract extraction.

4. What happens if cataracts are left untreated?

Ans: If the cataracts are left untreated, they lead to various complications like phacoanaphylactic uveitis, lens-induced glaucoma, and subluxation or dislocation of the lens.

 

Performing invasive and non-invasive treatments on the human body is the surgeon’s basic role. The surgeon attempts to assist the patient in overcoming the disease by assisting the patient with deformities and injuries through the operation. Surgery has a variety of specialties; one can become an eye surgeon, general surgeon, neurosurgeon, cardiovascular surgeon, plastic surgeon, orthopaedic surgeon, or oncologist. You would have observed that the surgeons have a crew supporting them, who make all the necessary preparations before the procedure may begin and assist during the surgery. A surgeon is a medical professional who operates or conducts surgery on patients. Along with doing elective and preventive surgeries on the patients, these medical professionals also perform diagnostic procedures.

Why Consider to Become a Surgeon in India?

India is the second-most populous nation in the world, and its healthcare industry has only grown since its independence. With the growing population and requirement for healthcare facilities, the demand for doctors is increasing.

While we all aim to achieve specific goals in our lives, we all know that we enjoy the journey more than we appreciate the realization of our goals. The field of medicine is fascinating too. Being in a position of understanding the human body and knowing how to bring it back on track and the experiences in between are the ones that you will cherish for your lifetime. Moreover, the satisfaction of saving lives goes far beyond the feeling of anything. Being a doctor is an honor and a responsibility of a lifetime.

There can be millions of reasons to pursue a career in medicine and become a doctor which can be listed here. However, the most important reason is your call. The pathway to becoming a doctor is not an easy one. If you want to become a doctor, you need self-motivation and an unshakable reason for pursuing a career in medicine that should come from within.

How to become a Surgeon in India

Here are a few guidelines that you must follow if you want to become a surgeon in India:

1. Passing the 12^th Grade: Candidates must first complete their 12^th grade or pre-university course (PUC) in physics, chemistry, and biology (PCB) with the necessary cut-offs to become a doctor.
2. Clearing NEET-UG: Students are now required to qualify for the NEET entrance examination. With about 76,928 medical seats available, it is the only entrance exam for MBBS admission in India to MCI-recognized medical colleges. After you get the required percentile, depending on the cut-off marks and attending counseling procedure paves a way for admission to the MBBS course.
3. Completing MBBS course: One of the most well-known graduate degrees for becoming a doctor in India is MBBS, and those who achieved the required percentile in the NEET exam are qualified to pursue MBBS. This 5-and-a-half-year program offers Pre, Basic, and Paramedical topics. A medico gets to learn Medicine & Surgery in MBBS. Additionally, students must complete a 12-month required rotational internship during their MBBS. After successful completion of your MBBS degree, you become eligible for higher studies in Medical Sciences.
4. Clearing NEET-PG: The NEET-PG (National Eligibility Entrance Test-PG), which is administered by the National Board of Examination, would be the basis for admission to MS courses in medical colleges in India. For admission to AIIMS and JIPMER and other INI- Institutes, the INI-CET examination is conducted. Candidates must meet particular examination Eligibility Criteria to pursue an MS degree in an Indian medical college. Further, selection and admissions to medical colleges depend on the cut-off score and merit list.
5. Pursuing an MS degree: The next step after earning an MBBS degree and clearing the NEET PG exam is to earn a PG degree, with MS being one of the most popular PG courses following MBBS. Your path to becoming a surgeon begins with this degree.

Developing both practical and theoretical skills is a requirement of medical college training. Students who are in their last years of medical school must work with patients in clinics and hospitals. Volunteering at community clinics or hospitals helps medical students stand out from their competition. A successful career as a surgeon will be paved by a residency program with a competent mentor in addition to the qualifications and skills for becoming a surgeon.

To get conceptual clarity in MBBS course subjects, access the best online video lectures.

Responsibilities after becoming a surgeon

The following duties often fall under the purview of surgeons:

• Analyzing and evaluating a patient’s medical situation and medical history.
• Engaging in conversation with the patient and addressing any worries they may have regarding their general health and well-being.
• Prescribing the necessary tests and examinations to identify the underlying causes of the patient’s condition.
• Examining and evaluating the test results to diagnose and determine any conclusions.
• Communicating the patient’s most recent state and offering evidence to back up the most recent conclusions.
• Creating and suggesting a remedy to address the issue or perform any surgery if required.
• Following up, reviewing, and assisting patients in taking care of their health as needed to aid in their recovery.

Right Way to Approach Surgery

Some MS Specialisations

• General surgery
• Orthopaedics
• Otorhinolaryngology
• Injury medicine and surgery
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Ophthalmology
• Laparoscopic Surgery
• Cosmetic surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Cardiac surgery
• Pediatric surgery

MCh degrees (MCh, or Master of Chirurgiae, is a Latin abbreviation for general surgery) with any specialization from an institution approved by the MCI are required for people who seek to advance their sub-specialization in any field, such as plastic surgery, cardiothoracic surgery, or urology. The MCh degree typically has a lot of research requirements. All candidates who pursue the MCh program must be full-time residents during the three-year training term. MCh can be done as a 5 years course after MBBS or 3 years after MS.

Job Roles

You can choose from several surgical specializations depending on your interests. Types of Surgeon’s Job Roles include:

Neurosurgeon: Covers all elements of brain surgery, including spinal surgery, skull base surgery, pediatric neurosurgery, and a variety of other neurological conditions.

Cardiothoracic Surgeon: Includes Congenital surgery, thoracic surgery, heart failure surgery, transplant surgery, oesophageal surgery, and cardiac surgery are all included in this. In this kind of surgery, conditions affecting the heart, oesophagus, chest, and lungs are treated.

Pediatric Surgeon: From the time a baby is born until they reach adolescence, these surgeons deal with pediatric surgical difficulties.

Orthopaedic Surgeon: Surgery performed on bones, joints, and soft tissues like ligaments, muscles, and nerves are done by orthopaedic surgery, which includes foot, ankle, and knee surgery, rheumatoid, and sports surgery, as well as fractures.

Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeon: They perform the surgery on the face and neck. Correcting face deformities, managing facial damage, and basic surgery to complex head and neck surgeries are all included in the procedures.

Other subspecialties surround vascular, colorectal, breast, endocrine, upper and lower gastrointestinal, kidney, liver transplantation, and a lot more.

Top Surgical Recruiting Firms in India

In India, there are many reputed hospitals where working will feel like a dream:

• Fortis Escorts Heart Institute, Delhi
• Jaypee Hospital, Noida
• Fortis Hospitals
• Apollo Hospitals Group
• Sri Ramakrishna Multi-Speciality Hospital
• Narayana Health
• Max Healthcare and Super Speciality Hospitals

Salary and PayScale of Surgeons

While surgeons in private institutions earn lakhs per month, those working in government hospitals are paid a set wage of 1 to 2.5 lakh. An entry-level surgeon makes about Rs. 9,71,000 annually. A general surgeon with experience can expect to make about Rs. 24,63,000, compared to a mid-career surgeon with 5 to 10 years of experience who can make about Rs. 11,71,000. The income varies depending on various factors, such as the number of surgeries performed, experience, type of surgeon, area of employment, and so on.

Possibilities for a Surgeon

The more accomplishments you have under your belt, the better. The use of technology to do operations with the aid of robots and other instruments will increase your worth and make you an asset to your organization, which is another area where surgeons may set themselves apart. Specialization is undoubtedly a key element that will elevate your status in society; nevertheless, be careful while selecting a speciality because each one requires time and money. Moving to a semi-urban location is another excellent strategy to boost your possibilities. Due to the rapid growth, one may anticipate the opening of new hospitals in these places to draw in more patients from nearby rural areas.

Future of Surgery

Both technology and surgical techniques have seen a significant change recently. The techniques and tools are being improved, which greatly lowers the risk for the patients. The use of robotic surgery and minimally invasive techniques is one direction we anticipate the future of surgery to take. The new techniques have been adopted by many hospitals, and they also hasten recovery times significantly. The doctors can now treat the patient with the aid of micro-cameras. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicines are two other developing areas of surgery. The medical professionals here use biomaterials to aid the patient’s recovery. An illustration would be the use of stem cells or scaffolds to assist a patient with an illness. The subject is still changing. The ability for people to develop organs from patient cells is soon to come.

The demands of this job can be physically and psychologically taxing. A surgeon’s position calls for in-depth medical expertise, as well as precision, devotion, and skill. A career as a surgeon is rewarding since it improves people’s quality of life. It is not an easy job to save a life, it requires lots and lots of hard work, sleepless nights, and years of practice. The average surgeon’s income is quite lucrative, which opens several intriguing career options. Surgeons typically have a lot of work on their plates, including monitoring patients, doing procedures, attending meetings, and completing paperwork. They occasionally might also have extra duties including mentoring junior physicians and conducting research.

To get access to the best online Surgery course for MBBS students, Click here.

Pathology is a branch of medical science that involves the study and examination of the origin and cause of diseases. It facilitates all aspects of patient consideration, from diagnostic testing and treatment advice to using cutting-edge genetic technologies and disease prevention. It is essential to the study of clinical medicine because it serves as a link between many academic disciplines and medicine. By studying Pathology in MBBS, medicos learn how to diagnose the disease or condition including the cause and degree of severity, track the development of the illness, examine the effectiveness of the therapy and manage the patient.

To know the right way to approach pathology in MBBS, Click here.

Why is pathology one of the best fields of study?

The basis for all clinical medicine, including patient care, diagnostic procedures, and treatment strategies, is pathology. To develop potential treatments for diseases, pathologists experiment with cutting-edge technology and carry out a variety of clinical procedures. They make every attempt to develop a more effective method of combating viruses, infections, and other serious health issues. Pathologists play a very crucial role in research, advancing medication, and devising new therapies to battle infections/viruses, contaminations, and infectious diseases.
Some of the fields of Pathology that students can opt for include:

• Clinical Pathology – A clinical pathologist is knowledgeable about the key components of laboratory medicine and various clinical branches. They typically have training in hematology, microbiology, chemical pathology, and many more. A clinical pathologist typically works in a rural town, community hospital, medium-sized medical practice, or other non-metropolitan centers.

• Forensic Pathology – A forensic pathologist’s primary responsibilities include identifying the cause of death and reconstructing the events leading up to it. This is completed in a careful, meticulous manner. The performance of autopsy exams of the internal and external body organs and determining the cause of death is a significant aspect of the function.

• Anatomical Pathology- This area is concerned with disease tissue diagnosis. Anatomical pathologists need to have a thorough knowledge of the pathological and clinical aspects of various diseases.

• General Pathology- A general pathologist typically works in a big rural town, community hospital, medium-sized private practice, or another non-metropolitan setting. They undergo various diagnostic procedures, blood sampling procedures, and various laboratory tasks.

• Chemical Pathology – Another branch of pathology that addresses the full spectrum of disease is chemical pathology. It includes identifying changes in a broad range of chemicals (proteins, electrolytes, and enzymes) in blood and body fluids in connection with numerous disorders.

• Immuno Pathology – Similar to hematology, the discipline of immunology frequently combines clinical work with laboratory medicine (the testing of patient samples, interviewing, examining, and advising patients about clinical problems).

• Microbiology – Diseases due to infectious organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites are the focus of microbiology.

 Digital Pathology:

It can speed up the delivery of more accurate diagnostic results while minimizing the impact of human error. The processes used in digital pathology allow it to complete routine tasks more quickly without compromising the quality of the work. Digital pathology is slowly gaining specific support for teaching, tissue-based research, medication development, and the global practice of human pathology throughout the world. Digital pathology is quickly gaining attention. It is an invention devoted to lowering laboratory costs, enhancing operational effectiveness, increasing productivity, and enhancing treatment choices and patient care.

Best way to learn Pathology in MBBS

 Refer to Dr. Harsh Mohan’s ‘Textbook of Pathology’
The book includes references as well as the most recent WHO classification of neoplasms and current diagnostic criteria for common diseases. It adheres to a straightforward, clear, replicable, and user-friendly format. Additionally, Prof. Ivan Damjanov generously contributed schematic, gross, and photomicrographs with higher quality and greater resolution to the book. To make it easier for beginners to recognise the structures in the images, each image is labelled. Each topic’s conclusion includes a distinctive eye-catching colour box that summarises the topic’s important themes in bullets for quick review. At the end of each chapter, the book also offers significant review questions (both long-answer types and short-notes on themes) to help the reader get ready and visualise what they will write for the exam.

 Enroll in Dr. Harsh Mohan’s Pathology For Undergrads online course
The course is aligned with Dr. Harsh Mohan’s ‘Textbook of Pathology’. The course focuses on the causes, and mechanisms of disease development (pathogenesis), morphologic changes in cell structure, and the effects of these changes (clinical manifestations). The course’s five key features are General Pathology, Hematology, Systemic Pathology, and Clinical Pathology, including Exfoliative Cytology, Body Fluids, and Cytology in Clinical Care. Pathology practicals include gross specimens that are significant from the perspective of an examination.

Check out Dr. Harsh Mohan’s online course – Pathology for UnderGrads

Pathology in MBBS is an exceptionally wide branch, where more than 19 kinds of specializations coexist. Depending upon their specializations, abilities, and interests, pathologists work either in research facilities, clinics, healthcare centers, or pathology centers. Frequently, they give advice and even decide the most ideal treatment in the event of complicated diseases. The pathological reports are a must for better diagnosis and treatment. The reports help specialists to examine the patient, diagnose diseases, and treat them accordingly. Pathologists utilize gross, microscopic, immunologic, genetic, and molecular modalities to determine the presence of disease and work closely with healthcare specialists, radiologists and researchers. They can sub-specialize in various disciples, like gastroenterology, gynecologic pathology, blood sicknesses, clotting disorder, microbiology, lung and breast cancers, and more.

 

Introduction

• Glaucoma (aka “Kala Motia” in Hindi) is also known as “Silent thief of Sight”, as patients suffering from advanced glaucoma gradually develop irreversible blindness and tunnel-like vision. Patients with advanced glaucoma are not even able to perform their daily routine tasks effectively.
• Glaucoma is very characteristically known by the optic nerve changes and progressive damage to the optic nerve. The changes in the optic nerve results in the characteristic disc appearance and corresponding changes in the visual field.
• The cause for maximum cases is unknown and therefore, primary glaucoma is either idiopathic or has some genetic cases which are yet not precisely known.
• Raised Intraocular Pressure (IOP) is not a part of the definition of glaucoma, as it is just a risk factor.

Broad Classification

• Classification helps to plan a treatment strategy

Key players of diagnosis

For the precise diagnosis, there are five things to keep in mind:

Elaborating the above-mentioned key players in detail:

1. Intraocular pressure

Normal IOP:

• According to the studies, normal IOP has a very wide range but for practical purposes, Mean IOP (GAT): 15±3 mmHg (Range 12-18) is considered.
• The “magic number of 21” is a figure of the past, an obsolete concept.
• In a graphical representation, Normal distribution with a slight skew towards higher values is seen.
• Remember many factors, in addition to glaucoma, influence IOP and can be divided into 2 categories (i) those that exert a long-term influence (e.g., genetics, age, gender, refractive error, and race), and (ii) those that cause short-term fluctuations in the pressure (e.g., time of day, body position, exertion, lid, and eye movement, various ocular and systemic conditions, general anesthesia, and some food and drugs).

Diurnal variation of IOP:

• IOP doesn’t remain the same throughout the day.
• IOP value is generally higher in the morning than in the afternoon; normal fluctuation is about 2-5 mm Hg in a day.
• If the fluctuation is not in the normal range within a day, then this IOP damages the optic nerve over a prolonged period.

Applanation Tonometry:

• Clinically, Goldmann Applanation Tonometer (GAT), a gold standard tonometer is used to measure the IOP. This is one of the most reliable ways of measuring the IOP.

GAT is mounted on a slit lamp and the patient sits on the other side. In the biprism of the applanation tonometer, the doctor can see two green mires under a cobalt blue filter and the endpoint of the pressure is reached when the inner margins of these superior and inferior hemispheres touch each other.

NOTE: Never start treating the patient based on one reading of IOP. Make sure to take 2-3 different readings at different periods on different days to ensure the most reliable reading of IOP.

IOP Paradox:

“Everything within 12-18 mm Hg range is not normal and everything beyond 18 mm Hg is not abnormal”.

There are two paradoxical conditions:

• Paradox 1: When there is GON, i.e., Glaucomatous optic nerve damage but the IOP < 21 mmHg, there is damage to the nerve and visual fields. This entity is called Normal/ Low Tension Glaucoma (NTG/LTG).
• Paradox 2: When the IOP value is > 21 mmHg and there is no optic nerve damage and the visual fields are perfectly fine, this entity is known as Ocular Hypertension (OHT; Normal variant).

NOTE:

• Remember, Refrain from using the word “Normal” in the clinical case scenarios because a range that is normal for one may not be normal for the other.
• If baseline IOP is > 30 mmHg, it is reconfirmed once and the patient should be started on therapy without the need for performing a diurnal IOP recording.

Central Corneal Thickness (CCT):

• It is measured by an instrument named Pachymeter.
• Normal corneal thickness is around 520-550 microns.
• It is an independent predictor of Glaucoma.
• Goldmann applanation tonometer calibrated for CCT of 520 mm: a thinner CCT underestimates true IOP, and thicker CCT overestimates.
• A very thin or very thick cornea can impact the decision-making process regarding the need to treat, or the aggressiveness of the therapy.

2. Optic Disc/ Optic Nerve Head: Normal Vs. Glaucoma

In the optic disc, the central part which is paler than the peripheral part is called the cup, and the reddish-orange part over the cup is called the neuro-retinal rim (NRR)and the entire neural tissue lies here.

There are a few things we need to consider, for the cup is to disc ratio measurement mentioned below:

• We can consider Optic disc as a ‘Donut’. The central part is empty, i.e., non-neural tissue but the peripheral part has neural tissue (NRR), and we should focus on the health of NRR.
• Cup: Disc Ratio: The central part is the cup and the blood vessel are coming and bending out on the neural rim. It is referred to as Cup Diameter/ Disc Diameter.
• Colour Cup: We must not interpret cupping by just looking at the color of the cup.
• Contour Cup: The important point to consider is the bend of the blood vessels coming out of the blood. It tells the exact margin of the cup.
• Correlate with the disc size: Usually, large discs have large cups and this cupping is physiological. However, a small disc with even a small cup must be examined with caution as it is more prone to develop glaucoma because the nerve fibres are tightly packed. Glaucomatous eyes with small discs may have pseudonormal cups.
• High interindividual variability: There is an immense amount of variability in individuals of the same race and in different races.
• ISNT Rule:
• It is the health of the neural rim that accounts for the health of the optic nerve.
• As a rule, the inferior neural rim of the optic disc is the thickest followed by the superior rim followed by the nasal rim, and the temporal rim is the thinnest. This is called the ISNT Rule.
• Nearly 80% of healthy optic nerves follow the ISNT rule. 20% of normal individuals can have different thicknesses of the rims but with all the other tests, we can rule out glaucoma in those individuals.
• In advanced cases of glaucomatous optic neuropathy, there occurs concentric NRR loss.

Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy (GON):

• Glaucoma is a disease that begins with asymmetry. Initially, the cupping in one eye is different from the other eye. When the asymmetry of the cup: disc ratio between the two eyes is more than 0.2, a person is labelled as Glaucoma Suspect.

Characteristics features of GON include:

• Generalized or focalized increase in the optic cup size and the cup: disc ratio
• Vertical enlargement of the optic cup (especially at the superior and inferior poles)
• Asymmetric cupping (0.2 cup-disc ratio difference) between the two eyes
• Narrowing or notching of the neural rim
• Splinter/ Drance hemorrhages
• Changes in vessel configuration and caliber
• Increased visibility of the lamina cribrosa pores

Accurate documentation with an optic disc drawing at baseline is important and can be supplemented with stereo-optic disc photography. Changes in disc findings are more sensitive indicators of the presence and progression of the disease

3. Gonioscopy

• To classify the anterior angle chambers into Open Angle Glaucoma and Closed Angle Glaucoma, a lens called a Gonioscope to view the angles.
• Why can’t we see the anterior chamber angle with the slit lamp or direct observation?

There is a small protrusion of the scleral tissue which projects anteriorly to the angle just like the watch glass fitted into the rim of a wristwatch. Similarly, because of the projection of scleral tissue, the cornea is fitted like a watch glass. There is a total internal reflection at the cornea-air interface and the light rays do not get out to reach our eyes. So, the curvature of the cornea creates internal reflection and therefore we need an additional lens called a Goniolens.

• What does a Goniolens do?

Gonio lens permits the visualization of the angle by eliminating the cornea as a refracting surface by placing a concave surface against the cornea.

So, these different glasses allow visualization of the angles using obliquely inclined mirrors.

• • What if the angles are closed?
  • Once angle closure is diagnosed, categorize the stage of angle closure
  • Find out the whether the angle closure is appositional or synechial. If the goniolens. is pressed in the centre of the cornea, the aqueous from the centre is displaced towards the angle and open it up artificially. This means that the angle closure is appositional. But if there were adhesions between the iris and the cornea or the lens, there are synechia, then whatever amount of displacement of aqueous is there, it will not open the angles and this is called Synechial angle closure.

• When to do gonioscopy?

All Glaucoma patients need to undergo:

• • • Initial examination
    • Repeat every 1-2 years as the human body is dynamic and with age, health conditions keep on changing

• What is seen through the Goniolens?
  • Schwalbe’s line (SL)
  • Trabecular meshwork (TM)
  • Scleral spur (SS)
  • Ciliary body band (CBB)

In Secondary Glaucoma,

• Pigmentary Glaucoma: Mascara line is seen which has a lot of pigments.
• Pseudoexfoliation Glaucoma: Sampolesi’s Line
• Angle recession: Seen in the case of trauma
• NVG: Abnormal blood vessels as seen in the Neovascular Glaucoma.

4. Visual field

• Visual field testing is known as Perimetry.
• Up to 37% of optic nerve fibers need to be lost before a VFD is found on automated perimetry, usually progressing from mid-peripheral or paracentral VFD in the earlier stages, to loss of central fixation points and temporal visual field loss in advanced
• Standard automated full-threshold static perimetry is preferred; use the same test strategy for comparison.
• Glaucoma visual field defect respects the horizontal meridian. Defects respecting vertical meridian, are likely due to neurophthalmic problems.
• Reliable tests are crucial and influenced by learning, patient comprehension and cooperation, artifacts, and other ocular pathology.
• Characteristic traits of glaucomatous visual field defects:
• Asymmetrical along the horizontal midline
• Located in the mid periphery(5-25° of fixation)
• Reproducible
• Not attributable to any other pathology
• Localized
• Correlating with the appearance of optic disc
• Whenever there is thinning of the inferior neuro-retinal rim, there will be superior optic nerve defect and vice versa.
• After analyzing the structural changes, match them with the corresponding functional defects.

5. Retinal nerve fibre layer (RNFL) analysis: RNFL thinning detected with optical coherence tomography (OCT) is useful to diagnose early glaucoma. Use in conjunction with the other parameters.

6. Risk Factors

• Elevated IOP
• Myopia
• Optic nerve changes
• Family history of glaucoma
• Increasing age
• Race
• Diabetes mellitus
• Cardiovascular disease

Treatment:

The main goals of treatment are:

• To preserve visual function with stable optic nerve and visual field status in the patient’s lifetime, by controlling IOP within the target range and addressing other risk factors, and
• To maintain quality of life.

IOP lowering by medication, laser, or surgery is the mainstay of treatment to prevent glaucoma development and retard progression.

(Detailed discussion in a subsequent blog)

Putting it all together!!

• Does this patient have glaucoma?
• If not, how high is the risk of developing glaucoma?
• What other tests need to be done?
• When do you see this patient back?
• When/How do you start treatment?
• What is the prognosis for this patient?

‘Basic Toolkit for Glaucoma’ by Dr. Parul Ichhpujani

To get conceptual clarity in Ophthalmology online, subscribe to CBME & NEET-oriented Ophthalmology for UnderGrads course.

Dr. Parul Ichhpujani

MS, MBA

Professor at Glaucoma Services

Department of Ophthalmology, Govt. Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh, India

Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore is a private medical college, hospital, and research institute. CMC is one of the best private medical colleges in India. In and around Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, this institute has a network of primary, secondary, and tertiary care hospitals. Dr. Ida Scudder is the founder of CMC Vellore. The college is affiliated with the Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai. CMC, Vellore is approved by NMC (National Medical Commission). It is ranked as one of the top medical colleges in India. The institution offers admission to various disciplines of sciences: medical science, nursing, allied health sciences, some other master’s and doctoral programs, and post-graduate engineering programs.

The college offers admission to various programs including:

• Undergraduate medical course (MBBS)
• Medical postgraduate courses (diploma, degree, and higher speciality courses)
• Certification courses
• Postdoctoral fellowship courses
• Distance education program
• Undergraduate nursing program
• Nursing postgraduate courses (diploma, degree, and fellowships)
• Allied health sciences degree courses
• MBA in hospital and health systems management (HHSM)
• MS Bioengineering
• Tech. Clinical Engineering
• D. Medical Sciences

MBBS in CMC Vellore

MBBS is a four-and-a-half-year course followed by one year compulsory rotating residential internship. In CMC, Vellore, the MBBS course comes under the group A category. As per the CBME curriculum, the undergraduate course in medicine comprises three phases.

Three phases in MBBS Curriculum

Block postings and Internship at CMC Vellore

As per the guidelines of the National Medical Commission,

• Along with regular classes, medical students also have to undergo block postings after phase 1 of their MBBS course at community health centers, mission hospitals, and secondary care centers.
• A medical student also has to compulsorily complete the rotational internship for 12 months. They are posted in the discipline of community health, medicine, surgery, obstetrics & gynecology, orthopaedics, emergency medicine, and short elective subjects.
• At CMC, Vellore, the students are allocated community health centers, mission hospitals, and secondary care centers for internships.

Admission procedure

Admission to the MBBS undergraduate course in CMC, Vellore solely depends on the NEET-UG score. An aspirant to get admission at CMC needs to qualify and crack the NEET-UG (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test) examination with a good score.

Eligibility to get admission at Christian Medical College

1. Candidate must have completed 10+2 higher secondary schooling or equivalent examination, and the last two years of education must include Physics, Chemistry, and Biology/Biotechnology as major subjects with English from the Tamil Nadu State board or any other equivalent examination board.
2. Candidates must have attained a minimum of 50% marks in all the subjects, Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Biotechnology, and English individually for the general category, and a minimum of 40% aggregate for BC, MBC, SC/ST candidates is required in a single attempt. The criteria mentioned are subject to change as per the state & university guidelines.
3. At the time of admission, a candidate must have completed 17 years of age or should complete the mentioned on or before 31^st December of the said year.

NEET-UG Exam Pattern for admission to MBBS at CMC Vellore

The NEET-UG exam is conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA) once a year. The following are some important points to keep in mind:

NEET Exam Section-wise Distribution:

In all 4 Subject sections, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Zoology, there are two sections, section A comprises 35 questions and section B comprises 15 questions out of which 10 are to be answered. Each question carries 4 marks.

Number of Seats for 2022-2023 at CMC, Vellore

The total number of MBBS candidate seats is 100 and the seat distribution is as follows:

1. All India open category: 16 seats
   a. One candidate is selected by Govt. of India under the ‘Central Pool Scheme’.
   b. 20% i.e., 3 seats are reserved for the SC/ST candidates.
2. Minority Network Category & CMC, Vellore staff quota: 84 Seats

Steps to get admission into CMC Vellore

1. Fill out the application form for an undergraduate course from the CMC, Vellore official site.
2. Provide your NEET application form details.
3. Submission of the receipts of the certification forms from Minority Network Organizations (if applicable).
4. Apply to the Tamil Nadu Selection Committee for the counseling process in the relevant category.
5. The selection is based on the NEET-UG score and candidates are required to fill the NEET-UG score and rank on the CMC, Vellore admission site.
6. Submission of the Arno & rank of TN Management Quota.
7. Be updated with the release of the merit list.
8. Counseling by Tamil Nadu Selection Committee, DME, Chennai.

All these steps are to be done in the stipulated period as provided by the college. So, be updated.

Admission Process after Counseling at CMC, Vellore

• After the counseling procedure, the candidate is required to register for the course by paying the tuition fees and completing other formalities, and submitting original certificates.
• The admission confirmation is approved by Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University. Until the approval, admission continues to be provisional.
• After the confirmation of the MBBS admission at CMC, Vellore, a candidate needs to submit their original required documents at the university campus.
• All the candidates getting admission to CMC, Vellore need to undergo a medical fitness check-up and the admission gets confirmed only after the medical fitness clearance by the Medical Board, CMC, Vellore.

MBBS Course Fee at CMC, Vellore

The fees to be paid at the time of registration for admissions to the MBBS course at CMC, Vellore is mentioned in the table below:

*The course fee may change in the coming years depending upon the University rules and regulations.

MBBS Cut-off at CMC, Vellore

Based upon the analysis of the previous years’ cut-offs, the estimated NEET-UG cut-off marks for the MBBS course for admission at CMC, Vellore are mentioned below:

To get the conceptual clarity on the MBBS courses online, click here.

Medical Postgraduate Courses at CMC, Vellore

In CMC, Vellore Admission to PG Degree, Diploma, PG diploma courses, and fellowship courses come under the Group B category. Admission to the MD/MS courses is done based on the NEET-PG score. All the students need to get into the NEET-PG merit list for admission to the PG courses with the required cut-off score.

PG Courses and Number of Seats

The Christian Medical College offers admission to various post-graduate specialization courses.

1. The CMC Vellore provides admission to MD courses for various subjects along with the number of seats mentioned below:

2. The CMC Vellore provides admission to MS courses for various subjects along with the number of seats mentioned below:

Service Obligation at CMC, Vellore

1. The service obligation of 3 years is mandated for all the MS/MD candidates, except for the clinical specialties (General merit category).
2. Candidates admitted to the clinical specialties under the general merit category have a service obligation of 1 year.
3. Candidates admitted to the pre-and para-clinical specialties under the general merit category, have no service obligation.
4. For diploma courses, the service obligation period is a minimum of 2 years whereas, general merit candidates are exempted from the same.
5. After the course completion, the service obligation is served at the CMC, Vellore or any of the associated mission hospitals.

Facilities available for the medical PG trainees

• Stipend
• Accommodation
• Research activity of each department
• Medical records department
• Recreation
• Staff/student health clinic

Fee Structure for the Postgraduate Medical Courses at CMC, Vellore

The fees to be paid at the time of registration for admissions to the Medical PG courses (MD/MS) at CMC are mentioned in the table below:

*The course fee may change in the coming years depending upon the University rules and regulations.

NEET-PG Cut-off Score for MS/MD admission to CMC, Vellore

Based upon the analysis of the previous years’ cut-offs, the estimated cut-off marks for the medical PG specialization courses for admission at CMC, Vellore are mentioned below:

Certificate courses after MBBS

The certificate courses offered by the CMC Vellore for the MBBS graduates are mentioned below:

• CMC, Vellore also provides admission to various higher specialty and Postdoctoral diploma courses and allied health sciences courses.
• After completing MBBS, a medico can also pursue M.Sc. Epidemiology and Master of Public Health Administration.

CMC, Vellore Hostel Fees and Facility

• Hostel Facility for MBBS Students: MBBS students live in the campus hostels. The Bagayam campus of the CMC, Vellore has girls’ and boys’ hostels. The girls’ hostel is named as ‘Paradise on Earth’, while the boys’ hostel is named as ‘Mansion of the Gods’. Boys are required to submit the hostel charges (Deposits and advance) of10,000/- and girls Rs.8,000/-. The approximate living expenses per month for the hostel are Rs.6,000/- for boys and girls. 

• Hostel facility for other courses: The women’s hostel and men’s hostel for the students of allied health courses are named as the ‘Fitch Hostel’ and the ‘Dorothy Joske Hostel’. The ‘Modale International Hostel’ is allocated for the elective course students/visitor observer students from overseas. The hostel and its charges vary as per the student’s course.

All the hostels are well equipped with all the necessities of a student and other facilities such as a Hostel Chapel, recreation room, gymnasium, library, dance room, music room, prayer room, mini kitchen, TV/Projector room. The food facility with vegetarian and non-vegetarian food is also available for all the residents.

How does DigiNerve help a medico?

DigiNerve is an EdTech initiative by Jaypee Brothers, a pioneer and market leader in health science publishing with a legacy spanning over 5 decades. It provides top-notch medical content to enhance conceptual clarity, clinical skills, and ace exams.

In terms of the calibre of the courses, the variety of subjects, the Gold Standard faculty, and the user-friendly interface, DigiNerve is unmatched.

• DigiNerve provides best online courses for MBBS subjects designed by eminent faculty as per CBME Curriculum and NEET Exam, such as

• Apart from the MBBS and MD courses, DigiNerve brings the professional courses ‘Ultrasound in OBGYN Made Easy’ and ‘Basics of Infertility and IUI Made Easy’ by the top faculty Dr. Chaitanya Nagori and Dr. Sonal Panchal. After completion of the course, the candidates will earn a course completion certificate from Ian Donald Inter-University School of Medical Ultrasound.

• An Exam preparation course ‘Cracking MRCP Part 1’ by Dr. Gurpreet Singh Wander and Dr. Archith Boloor, helps a medico with their preparation to crack the MRCP exam. Cracking MRCP Part 1 course is based on the curriculum devised by The Royal College of Physicians (RCP). The course has 15 online modules covering major specialties such as Clinical Sciences, Cardiology, Gastroenterology, etc. The course includes video lectures, e-chapters, 2500+ BOF questions, mock exams, and most of all high-quality notes.

FAQs

1. How many marks are required in NEET for MBBS in CMC Vellore?

Ans: The estimated cut off score for admission to CMC, Vellore is around 600+ in the NEET Examination for general category. For the OBC/SC/ST & Minority groups, the estimated cut-off score is around 500 marks. For sponsored & management quota students, the cut-off range is comparatively lower.

2. Is CMC Vellore a deemed university?

Ans: No, CMC Vellore is not a deemed University. It is a private college, affiliated with Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University, Chennai run by the Christian community.

3. Is CMC good for MBBS?

Ans: CMC Vellore is ranked 3^rd as per NIRF ranking 2022 after AIIMS, Delhi, and PGIMER, Chandigarh. It is one of the best medical colleges in India.

Gynecology and obstetrics both focus on the female reproductive system. Gynecology deals with non-pregnant women whereas Obstetrics deals with pregnancy and the procedures and issues that go along with it, thus obstetrics deals with both the mother and the infant. To lower the risk of newborn disease and mortality, obstetricians closely collaborate with pediatricians and neonatologists on newborn care. They also remove cancers, fibroids, etc, surgically, although many gynecological problems require hormonal and other pharmacological therapy too.

What an obstetrician does:

The duties obstetricians carry out consist of:

• Obstetricians are in charge of collaborating with midwives to monitor and support a woman’s natural birth while she is in labor.
• One of their roles is to execute an episiotomy, which entails making precise cuts over the pregnant woman’s perineum to widen the birth canal.
• In some cases, assistance may be required to hasten protracted delivery to lessen maternal exhaustion and infant suffering (rising heart rate and possible brain damage to the baby). This makes use of methods like vacuum-assisted birth and forceps delivery.
• Caesarean (or C) section, calls for the baby to be surgically removed from the mother’s womb to lessen difficulties during labor. If a C-section is not used to hurry the delivery, difficulties could ultimately result in the baby’s death or physical harm.
• Therapy and diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. When the fertilized ovum is implanted somewhere other than the womb, it results in an ectopic pregnancy. It frequently ends up in the fallopian tubes.

What a gynecologist does: 

Gynecologists employ a variety of diagnostic and curative techniques. The following are a few of the common gynecological procedures:

• Hysterectomy or uterus removal
• Removing ovaries
• Fallopian tubes are removed during surgery
• Hysteroscopy and colposcopy involve employing tools like endoscopes to inspect the uterus’ inside.
• Taking care of uterine fibroids
• Identifying and treating sexually transmitted diseases
• Diagnosing menstrual issues, such as absence, severe bleeding, irregular or no periods, etc.
• Examination of the reproductive organs with ultrasound.

Objectives of Learning OBGYN

The Obstetrics and Gynecology Department offers modern, comprehensive screening and therapeutic techniques in a sympathetic environment for women in all stages of life.

In addition to regular gynecology procedures and medical treatments, a dedicated team provides cutting-edge motherhood facilities for routine and high-risk pregnancies, post-delivery and family planning services, sterility screening and handling, and all endoscopic gynecological operations.

Moreover, the department addresses high-risk pregnancies using prenatal diagnostic tests such as infant color doppler, amniocentesis, and velocimetry investigations. It also includes colposcopy, pap smear, and HPV-CO testing for going through menopausal women for cancer screening.

Aspirants can get a variety of profitable jobs in India and overseas by enrolling in this course. You can pursue additional education, such as research studies at prestigious universities and research institutions. Medical specialties like gynecology, cancer, critical care, reproductive endocrinology, or maternal-fetal medicine are all open to you as a career option. In India, postgraduate training in obstetrics and gynecology is either a three-year master’s program or a two-year diploma program. You can pursue a sub-specialty training program in fellowships after finishing your residency training.

OBGYN in MBBS

In their fourth year of MBBS, undergraduate students who are studying OBGYN participate in case discussions in the field of obstetrics and gynecology. A medico must also do a one-month OBGYN internship in addition to this. They receive instruction in the labor room, family planning OPD and OT, and obstetrics and gynecology OPD’s wards and OTs throughout their internship.

PG in OBGYN

A three-year, full-time postgraduate programme in OBGYN aims at training students to provide care to each patient, both pregnant and non-pregnant, as well as a thorough superior assessment of the entire medical pathology associated with the female reproductive organs.

Students learn about the most recent society standards, benchmark studies, breakthroughs in PCOS, robotic surgery, and conducting clinical examinations in OBGYN MD course. In the specialty clinics, OPD, wards, labour rooms, and operating rooms, they perform the necessary tests, interpret the results, and carry out medical/surgical management. They are taught to assess pregnancy-related issues using medical skills, find solutions, and provide pertinent prognoses.

Watch this video to learn the right way to approach OBGYN MD

Ph.D. Scholars of OBGYN

Every Ph.D. candidate has the privilege of choosing their specialty area from a list that includes fetal development and growth, hereditary and genomics, gestational diabetes, parental hepatitis, preeclampsia, prenatal analysis, and screening. Additionally, topics like urogynecology, endometriosis, endometrium, and establishment, prenatal cancer, and genital level are also discussed.

List of Top 10 Colleges for OBGYN in India

Here is the most recent list of top obstetrics and gynecology colleges in India that have earned official NMC recognition. These universities have the highest rankings and are even regarded as the most reputable universities in India

Pharmacology is the study of the interaction of drugs with biological systems. This includes research on the chemical makeup, biological processes, physiological and behavioral impacts, mechanisms of action, and both therapeutic and non-therapeutic applications of pharmaceuticals.

Pharmacology is broadly categorized into two terms:

 

PHARMACOKINETICS IN PHARMACOLOGY

The term ‘Pharmacokinetics’ is derived from ancient Greek words, pharmakon meaning ‘drug’ and kinetikos meaning ‘moving’ or put in motion. Pharmacokinetics is a journey of a drug through the body, and in this, a drug passes through four different phases- Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion, which are called ADME properties.

The selection and modification of drug-dose schedules are aided by pharmacokinetic parameters.

Let’s discuss the pharmacokinetic parameters:

1. ABSORPTION:

Absorption is the movement of a drug to the site of action from the site of administration. Various factors affect the extent and rate of absorption of the drug, such as routes of drug administration, dosage form, physiochemical properties of the drug,  bioavailability, pharmacogenetic factors, etc.

First Pass Metabolism: It is a phenomenon in which a drug is metabolized or transformed at a specific site before the drug reaches its site of action or systemic circulation, resulting in a lower concentration of the active substance. Examples of the drugs that undergo this phenomenon in the liver are propranolol, lidocaine, and clomethiazole; in the gut wall are sex hormones.

In the case of intravenous or intra-arterial administration, the drug bypasses the first pass metabolism and enters the circulation directly.

Watch this free video of one of the best online pharmacology courses in MBBS

Drug distribution is the process by which a drug travels from the administered site after absorption via the blood vessel walls to the sites of action.

The drug is distributed via various body fluid compartments, such as plasma, interstitial fluid compartments, and trans-cellular compartments.

Factors affecting the distribution rate of the drug:

• Protein binding of drug
• Plasma concentration of drug (Cp)
• Clearance
• Physiological barriers to distribution
• Drug affinity of drugs to certain tissues

3. METABOLISM:

Drug metabolism, also known as biotransformation, is the process by which the body metabolizes drug molecules. The principal site of drug metabolism is the liver.

Enzymes responsible for drug metabolism are classified into two categories:

• Microsomal enzymes: They are present in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the liver, kidney, and GIT. Example: cytochrome P450.
• Non-microsomal enzymes: They are present in the cytoplasm, and mitochondria of different organs. Examples: esterase, amidase, and hydrolase.

Two Phases of Metabolism: Phase I metabolism converts a parent drug to polar active metabolites, via., oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis reactions, while phase II metabolism converts a parent drug to polar inactive metabolites including conjugation reactions.

Watch this video of Pharmacology for UnderGrads and gain an in-depth understanding of Pharmacology in MBBS.

Drug excretion refers to the removal of drugs in unchanged or modified form out of the body.

The major route of excretion:

1. Renal excretion: It involves three major physiological processes, namely, glomerular filtration, active tubular secretion, and passive tubular reabsorption.
2. Hepatobiliary excretion: The drug with a molecular weight of more than 300 Da and polar drugs are excreted in the bile.
3. Gastrointestinal excretion: After the oral administration of a drug, a part of it is not absorbed and excreted in the feces.
4. Pulmonary excretion: Volatile drugs, such as gaseous anesthetics, are excreted via the lungs into expired air.

Saliva, sweat, tears, breast milk, vaginal fluid, nails, and hair are considered the minor routes of drug excretion.

VARIOUS PHARMACOKINETIC PARAMETERS:

1. Half-life: It is the time taken for the drug concentration in blood or plasma to reduce to half of the original amount, i.e. the amount of the drug in the body is reduced by 50%. A drug’s half-life varies from patient to patient because of a variety of patient and drug-specific factors.

The formula for the half-life is t½ = 0.693 × V_d /CL where,

V_d is the volume of distribution and CL is a clearance factor.

2. Order of Kinetics: For many medications, the most typical is First order kinetics, meaning that a fixed proportion of the drug is eliminated from the body at regular intervals of time. Only a few medications, like ethanol and phenytoin, undergo zero order kinetics wherein, a fixed quantity of the medicine is eliminated after each period.

3. Clearance of a Drug: It is the volume of plasma cleared or removed out of the drug by hepatic and/or renal excretion, among other organs.

Clearance =    Rate of Elimination

Plasma drug concentration

And, Total clearance is calculated by Cl_t = Cl_h + Cl_r + Cl_others where,

Cl_t = Total clearance

Cl_h = Hepatic clearance

Cl_r = Renal clearance

Cl_other = Clearance from all other routes

4. Steady-state plasma concentration: When a drug dose is administered regularly over a certain time, a steady state is reached. It is a point where the amount of medication absorbed and the amount removed from the body is in equilibrium. For instance, a medication that has a half-life of 6 hours will likely reach a steady state after being administered for more than 24 hours (More than 4 half-life).

To access online pharmacokinetics lecture notes, download the DigiNerve app.

Dr. Sandeep Kaushal

MD, MAMS, FCP(ACCP), FIMSA, MBPhS, ACME

Dean Academics, Professor, and Head,

Department of Pharmacology,

Dayanand Medical College and Hospital,

Ludhiana, Punjab

Pharmacology is the scientific study of the effects of drugs on living organisms. A drug is any chemical substance, natural or synthetic, that affects a biological system. Pharmacology may include studying how organisms process drugs, identifying and validating new targets for drug action, and designing and developing new drugs to prevent, treat, and cure disease. Pharmacology research is also an important part of the advancement of modern personalised medicine.

This industry provides numerous job opportunities, with pharmaceutical companies and healthcare providers among the largest employers. Knowing the various career paths available to you if you have a pharmacology degree is very important. A pharmacology degree allows you to work in a variety of pharmacology degree jobs. In this article, we will look at pharmacology degree jobs, their average salaries, and primary responsibilities which will help you decide on your career in Pharmacology after pursuing your graduation.

• Pharmacist

The average base salary of a Pharmacist is ₹2,80,742 per year. If you have a pharmacology degree, you can work in a variety of pharmacology departments. A pharmacist’s job is to provide medication and treatment information. They may write prescriptions, respond to questions about drug interactions or side effects, and advise patients on dosages. Pharmacists typically work in community pharmacies or hospitals, and they may conduct drug or treatment research.

Learn the Tips and Tricks to learn Pharmacology

• Pharmacy Operations Manager

The average base salary of a Pharmacy Operations Manager is ₹ 4,37,289 per year. They are in charge of the day-to-day operations of a pharmacy department. They typically collaborate with medical professionals to meet the pharmaceutical needs of patients. They monitor inventory levels ensuring compliance with federal policies and keeping accurate records. They also supervise pharmacy employees.

• Pharmacologist

The average base salary of a Pharmacologist is ₹ 4,91,318 per year. A pharmacologist is in charge of scientific research, drug development, and evaluation. They perform laboratory testing to determine the overall safety and efficacy of medications. They also decide on dosage safety, including administration, age, and amount.

• Clinical Research Associate

The average base salary of a Clinical Research Associate is ₹ 3,29,875 per year. A clinical research associate is in charge of clinical research and trials. They frequently create testing procedures, select and set up trial sites, and monitor tests. They present protocols to ethics committees and write reports on each trial’s results. They ensure strict data collection and participation.

• Pharmaceutical Scientist

The average base salary of a Pharmaceutical Scientist is ₹ 7,03,365 per year. A pharmaceutical scientist conducts drug research and development in laboratory experiments. They study biological processes and evaluate the efficacy of new drugs in counteracting, correcting, or slowing harmful biological activity. They establish testing procedures to assess the short and long-term biological effects and interactions of pharmaceutical compounds. They also develop new approaches to existing medical problems and assist drug developers in other ways.

• Pharmaceutical Consultant

The average base salary of a Pharmaceutical Consultant is ₹5,04,206 per year. They assist pharmaceutical companies in becoming more efficient and providing better products to their customers. They assist clients by identifying operational problems, eliminating waste, and suggesting solutions, such as new technologies, like a business or management consultant who specialises in pharmaceuticals. A pharmaceutical consultant may assist with project management, cost forecasting, and recommending plans, such as clients and distribution methods. They also aid in the development of compliance policies.

• Quality Control Chemist

The average base salary of a Quality Control Chemist is ₹2,29,103 per year. A quality control chemist is in charge of ensuring that drugs and other formulations meet the established safety standards. They inspect raw materials and finished products for quality, test new ingredients, and help with product development. They conduct experiments to determine whether a drug is safe for use with their knowledge of chemistry, biology, and mathematics.

 

Watch this video lecture on NSAIDs – Anti-gout drug

• Environmental Monitor

The average base salary of an Environmental Monitor is ₹7,89,873 per year. An environmental monitor assesses the chemical and physical properties of environmental conditions, such as water or soil samples. They conduct research to identify sources of pollution in the environment. They may also review and update company policies and operating procedures for compliance with local and federal regulations.

• Regulatory Affairs Specialist

The average base salary of a Regulatory Affairs Specialist is ₹5,74,873 per year. They manage regulatory submissions to government agencies. They prepare applications and supporting documentation, as well as monitor FDA regulations governing clinical trials and product development. They keep in touch with government officials and may attend regulatory hearings or product approvals.

• Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Technician

The average base salary of a Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Technician is ₹3,00,00 per year. A pharmaceutical manufacturing technician collaborates with other members of a team to create pharmaceutical products. They assist in the development of new products while adhering to proper safety and quality standards. They may also be in charge of the lab’s equipment and inventory.

• Medical Writer

The average base salary of a Medical Writer is ₹5,33,434 per year. A medical writer creates articles and reports that explain how to use pharmaceutical products for medical purposes. They typically collaborate with doctors, patients, or researchers to collect information for drug trials or treatment protocols. They also contribute to the creation of patient leaflets that contain information about each pharmaceutical, such as indications, descriptions, proper usage, methods of ingestion or application, and potential side effects or warnings.

• Lab Manager

The average base salary of a Lab Manager is ₹5,13,023 per year. A lab manager is in charge of seeing laboratory processes and staff activities. They help scientists, technicians, and medical professionals by providing lab support, adhering to safety protocols, and maintaining lab equipment. A lab manager organises a laboratory’s daily activities in order to maximise productivity.

• Pharmaceutical Sales Representative

The average base salary of a Pharmaceutical Sales Representative is ₹2,98,254 per year. They counsel physicians on the advantages of various pharmaceutical products for their patients. They research the competitive landscape of various pharmaceutical markets in order to promote their company’s products. A pharmaceutical sales representative may also monitor doctors’ prescribing habits and assist in the development of marketing strategies.

• Medical Writing Manager

The average base salary of a Medical Writing Manager is ₹13,91,567 per year. Medical writers who create promotional materials for new drugs and treatments are overseen by a medical writing manager. They may create press releases, blog posts, or other content to educate patients and the media about medical advances. They consult with clients directly to determine the scope of research reports.

• Analytical Chemist

The average base salary of an Analytical Chemist is ₹3,95,467 per year. An analytical chemist performs experiments to determine and analyse the chemical structure of various compounds. They are in charge of testing pharmaceutical products such as new drug formulations or over-the-counter medications. They frequently work in groups with other chemists and technicians.

 

Watch this video to learn about β Lactam Antibiotics–Cephalosporins, Carbopenems & Monobactam

• Medical Science Liaison

The average base salary of a Medical Science Liaison is ₹8,45,000 per year. A medical science liaison communicates drug and medical treatment information to physicians, patients, and the general public. They may collaborate with scientific teams, regulatory agencies, and pharmaceutical companies to provide clients with information about new products or clinical study results. They may also help with the recruitment of test participants for studies.

• Laboratory Technician

The average base salary of a Laboratory Technician is ₹2,48,718 per year. A laboratory technician provides clinical and basic research assistance to a laboratory scientist or physician. They prepare samples for analysis, monitor processes, and assess drug levels in blood tests. A laboratory technician may administer medication to animals in the lab to test for results and side effects, as well as perform tests to identify drug interactions, under the supervision of a medical professional.

• Microbiology Technician

The average base salary of a Microbiology Technician is ₹3,06,000 per year. A microbiology technician performs tests to identify pathogenic microorganisms and monitor the levels of bacteria in food and water. They help doctors by identifying different disease-causing microbes or the source of infection. They may also contribute to the development of new drugs and treatments by studying how microorganisms interact with different chemicals.

• Clinical Research Coordinator

The average base salary of a Clinical Research Coordinator is ₹2,51,331 per year. A clinical research coordinator collaborates with other members of a team to plan and manage clinical trials. They communicate with medical professionals and insurance companies to obtain approval for each study and to keep patient records for the duration of the study. They may also travel or work outside of business hours, depending on the study’s schedule and needs.

In conclusion, Pharmacology is one of the fastest growing sectors in the healthcare industry, and it is important to the sector’s sustenance. An Undergrad degree or a Postgrad degree or a Ph.D. degree in Pharmacology increases employment opportunities, career scope, and prospects. The advancement of science and technology has increased our understanding of diseases, their causes, and potential treatments, making pharmacology a discipline rich in potential and fraught with challenges. This industry will almost certainly continue to expand.

DigiNerve’s Pharmacology for UnderGrads

Learn pharmacology online by preparing with pharmacology online courses which are available vastly. All you need to do is research the best online pharmacology courses like Pharmacology for UnderGrads, in which modules are aligned with the standard pharmacology textbook, allowing students to take a systematic approach. The course clarifies fundamental concepts and keeps students up to date on the most recent advances.

 

Watch this to know more about the course and learn the right way to approach Pharmacology

Frequently Asked Questions

Q.1 What can you do with a Pharmacology Degree?

Those who are interested in biology and chemistry may find a rewarding career in pharmacology. If you want to work in the pharmaceutical industry, learning more about the jobs available with a pharmacology degree can be helpful. In this article, we define pharmacology degrees, describe the courses they include, discuss the jobs you can get with one, and discuss the skills you can learn in pharmacology programmes.

Q.2 What does a pharmacology degree include?

Pharmacology programmes teach scientific concepts as well as practical pharmacology applications. Courses can vary in difficulty and progression depending on the level of degree and specific school. A pharmacology degree curriculum may include the following courses:

• Research Conduction
• Fundamentals of pharmacology
• Cell signaling and receptors
• Biomedical science
• Reproducibility in pharmaceuticals
• Biomedical statistics
• Bimolecular basics
• Protein chemistry
• Immunology
• Drug development
• Virology and pathogenesis
• Neuropharmacology
• Experimental treatments
• Endocrine pharmacology
• Drug metabolism

Q.3 What skills can you develop with a pharmacology degree?

Students in pharmacology programmes are prepared for successful careers in the pharmaceutical industry. A pharmacology degree can help them develop the following skills:

• Research skills

Research skills enable pharmacists to gather information and find solutions to problems. Note-taking, time management, communication, and problem-solving are examples of research skills.

• Attention to detail

The ability to pay attention to detail allows you to review materials with precision and accuracy while noticing minor details. This is a valuable skill that you can hone in a pharmacology programme by carrying out experiments and noting minor details during trials.

• Critical thinking

The ability to assess a situation, gather important information, identify problems, and offer workable solutions is referred to as critical thinking. Students in pharmacology learn to develop their critical thinking skills by completing exercises and collaborating with their peers to solve problems.

Pharmacology is the study of how medicines interact with biological systems. Research into medicines’ chemical make-up, biological functions, effects on physiology and behavior, mechanisms of action, and both therapeutic and non-therapeutic applications are all covered in this and are part of the 2^nd year curriculum of MBBS. Since the treatment of patients requires medicines, knowledge regarding the subject is not going to hurt you, and the more knowledge you have, the better your treatments would be. Pharmacology in MBBS is often considered a volatile subject and a subject that has to be mugged up. This is not the case! Pharmacology is a beautiful subject, and it can be understood without mugging up, and there are quintillion applications for you in the future with the knowledge you acquire in Pharmacology. In this write-up, I would be telling you the various tips and tricks I personally have used and succeeded in learning and understanding Pharmacology. So let’s dive right into it.

Things to focus

The most important thing to address in any given topic in Pharmacology would be to understand

• What to study?
• How to study?
• How to memorize?
• What to write in the examination?

The first question

What to study?

This is a very important and relevant question that you need to understand. Let’s take the chapter on diabetes mellitus to make this idea clear.

Step 1: Understand normal physiology

The β-cells of the pancreas secrete insulin. Insulin stimulates the movement of glucose from the plasma into the skeletal muscles & adipose tissues. This will cause a reduction in plasma glucose.

Step 2: Disease pathophysiology

In Diabetes Mellitus pancreas is producing less amounts of insulin or the pancreas is producing normal amounts of insulin but insulin is not able to produce its action properly due to some defect in the insulin receptors. Both these will cause an increase in plasma glucose. This will result in hyperglycemia. Since the person is not able to utilize glucose he will be always hungry (polyphagia) since his body is interpreting that the body is not getting glucose because the person is not taking glucose. The higher levels of plasma glucose will be filtered by the kidneys and excreted in the urine. Glucose will draw water along with it which will result in urination (polyuria) and due to excessive loss of water, it will cause the person to be thirsty (polydipsia).

Step 3: Classify the drug classes depending upon the mechanism of action

In diabetes mellitus, the plasma glucose is elevated. The agents used for the management of DM would reduce plasma glucose. If there is a deficiency of insulin, we need to supplement insulin as in the case with type I DM (where there is reduced insulin secretion). Where the action of insulin is improper, we can use agents that will reduce plasma glucose. These agents act mainly by four mechanisms.

Group 1: Agents that increase the insulin secretion

Group 2: Agents that increase the action of insulin

Group 3: Agents that reduce the reabsorption of glucose from the kidney

Group 4: Agents that inhibit the gastrointestinal absorption of glucose

The action of drugs via these mechanisms will result in a reduction of plasma glucose.

Step 4: Individual groups of drugs

For explanation purposes, let’s discuss the agents that increase insulin secretion. These agents are classified as

• Sulfonylurea
• Meglitinide analogues
• GLP-1 agonists
• DPP-4 inhibitors

It becomes impossible to learn all the drugs named in your textbooks, so the easiest way to learn is to learn about groups of drugs and their common properties. Each group would have a prefix or a suffix with the base word.

For example, Sulfonylurea has the prefix ‘Gli’

• Glipizide
• Gliclazide
• Glibenclamide
• Glimepiride

Another example would be DPP-4 inhibitors which have the suffix ‘gliptin’.

• Sitagliptin
• Vildagliptin

This helps to remember a lot of names and classes of the drugs.

Step 5: Specific mechanism of action of the group of drugs

Let’s take the example of sulfonyl urea. As we know now that sulfonyl urea increases insulin secretion. Now we need to know the mechanism of action in depth. Normally the β-cells of the pancreas have K⁺ channels which move potassium from the intracellular to the extracellular. This results in the hyperpolarization of these cells. Sulfonyl urea blocks these K⁺ channels resulting in the depolarization of β-cells which cause insulin secretion.

Step 6: Understanding the peculiar pharmacokinetic properties of the drugs

Route of administration is one thing to consider. Oral bioavailability (very low or very high oral bioavailability), plasma protein binding (low or high protein binding), metabolizing enzymes (whether there are any potential interactions), and the predominant elimination method.

Step 7: Uses of the drug

First, write the primary use of the drug against disease, and then the secondary use related to the topic. Sulfonyl urea is only used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Step 8: Adverse effects

There is a practice of writing nausea and vomiting as adverse drug reactions for every drug, This will not fetch you any marks. Be very specific while mentioning the adverse effects of the drug. E.g. Since sulfonyl urea increases insulin secretion, sulfonyl urea can cause hypoglycemia as an adverse effect. Since insulin is an anabolic hormone, an increase in insulin secretion will result in weight gain.

Step 9: Interactions if any

Learn the therapeutically significant interactions. E.g., Sulfonyl urea increase insulin secretion, and the use of sulfonyl urea with insulin can cause hypoglycemia.

Step 10: Lastly, write down the Contraindications, if any

This is not applicable to all the drugs but write wherever required. This is must-know information for the effective treatment of any disease or illness. For example, Sulfa urea groups will cause hypersensitivity reactions in people who are already allergic/sensitive to drugs containing sulfa groups.

How to study Pharmacology?

Here are some tips and tricks to study pharmacology for MBBS in the easiest way,

1. Consistency is the key to learning: No matter how many hours you study before the exam, unless you are regular in understanding & revising your concepts, you cannot ace any exam. Shortcuts and voracious reading at the end of exams can help you only a little bit. Be consistent.
2. Focus on ‘must know’ topics: Always keep your prime focus on the ‘must know’ topics and learn and memorize them regularly to have a better understanding of the subject.
3. Use Mnemonics and memory tricks for Pharmacology: Make your own mnemonics so that you can easily relate and memorize them for a longer time. For instance, for memorizing the adverse effects of sulfonyl urea, you can use the mnemonic “Hari has gained some weight”, in this sentence, H indicates Hypoglycaemia and weight gain would be the next important adverse effect.
4. Make notes: The pharmacology subject has more content to learn and memorize and so is easy to forget. To solve this problem, make your own notes so that it helps in the revision of the topic and future reading as well. Taking notes during the lecture also helps a lot in learning and identifying key areas of the topic.
5. Use flow charts, diagrams & tables: Flowcharts and diagrams are a very convenient and informative way of memorizing pharmacology. It helps to remember the core concepts, especially the mechanism of action of the drugs, normal physiology, pathophysiology of the disease, etc.
6. Conceptual clarity: There is a lot to memorize in pharmacology, so don’t cram the lengthy textbooks, rather, focus on clearing the concepts, gaining in-depth knowledge of the topic by studying regularly in a proper manner, and asking doubts.

7. Study sequentially: Understand the normal physiology and pathophysiology of the disease first before going into details of drugs. This will help you have a clear understanding of the topic.

How to memorize Pharmacology?

This is a frequently asked question, there is no shortcut to memorizing pharmacology but with repeated reading. Effective learning and conceptual clarity are a must to memorize pharmacology.

What to write in the Examination?

Write the answers in an orderly fashion highlighting the specific points in arranged format depending upon the question. Imagine this question in your examination, sulfonyl urea?

Your complete answer should include the following headings

• A brief introduction to diabetes mellitus
• Mechanism of action, in the case of sulfonyl urea, increases insulin secretion (a general mechanism) and sulfonyl urea inhibits the potassium channels in the β-cells of the pancreas thereby causing depolarization and release of insulin (a specific mechanism)
• Any peculiar pharmacokinetic properties
• Uses (Primary and then secondary both and more focus on the primary uses will fetch more marks)
• Specific adverse effects (don’t just mention nausea and vomiting always, BE SPECIFIC)
• Mention therapeutically significant interactions.
• Don’t forget to mention the precautions and contraindications, if any.

To learn the conceptual clarity in Pharmacology online, subscribe to CBME & NEET-oriented Pharmacology for UnderGrads course.

Dr. Nirmal George
MBBS, MD
Associate Professor
Sree Gokulam Medical College & Research Foundation (SGMC&RF),
Trivandrum, Kerala

Microbiologist: A scientist who researches microscopic life processes and life forms is known as a microbiologist. This includes researching the development, relationships, and characteristics of microscopic creatures like bacteria, algae, fungi, several kinds of parasites, and their hosts. Microbiology is used in many aspects of daily life, including food production, biodegradation, the production of commercial goods, and genetic engineering.
In private biotechnology firms and higher education, most microbiologists focus on a particular area of microbiology, such as bacteriology, parasitology, virology, or immunology. Thus, the goal of microbiology is to increase our fundamental understanding of microbes through the investigation of their morphology, metabolism, physiology, reproduction, and genetics. It’s possible that in the next few years, microbiology may be used in a variety of other ways that will be extremely advantageous to humanity in every way. To comprehend these organisms’ traits and identify them, microbiologists concentrate on their identification and growth. This is done with the overarching goal of preventing, identifying, and treating infectious diseases.

Work done by Microbiologists: Microbiologists in India work on a variety of projects that improve our quality of life, including monitoring the impact of microbes on climate change, inventing green technology, guaranteeing the safety of our food, and treating and preventing disease. Microbiologists research microorganisms like viruses, algae, bacteria, fungi, and a few sorts of parasites. They attempt to understand how these creatures live, develop, and interface with their surroundings. Most microbiologists work in research groups with different researchers and experts. By understanding microorganisms, microbiologists hope to provide answers to many significant global questions.

Watch the video to learn Major Healthcare-associated Infection

A wide range of professions in the industry (marketing, technical support, and regulatory affairs), education (teaching, museums, and scientific institutions), business (patent attorney or accountant), and communications (public relations, journalism, and publishing) are also open to microbiologists. The National Health Service organizations, the pharmaceutical and water sectors, as well as forensic science laboratories, employ the majority of those who work in hospitals, laboratories, and offices. The field of microbiology is wide and has connections to biochemistry and immunology, among other biological sciences.

• Healthcare microbiologists
Microbes can be helpful in both health and sickness since they are employed to create novel treatments that aid in the treatment of illnesses and diseases. Microbiologists must first understand how microbes function to tackle microbe-related issues and take advantage of their talents. They can then apply this knowledge to create new technologies, treat or prevent disease, and generally enhance our quality of life. To treat diseases, microbiologists are crucial. Many doctors and scientists work in medical facilities and labs, examining body fluids, blood, and human tissue to diagnose infections, track the efficiency of therapies, or detect disease outbreaks. In hospitals, universities, and medical school labs, some microbiologists hold clinical scientist positions where they conduct research and offer medical staff scientific guidance. To produce vaccines and enhance existing therapies, other microbiologists focus on bacteria that cause diseases like the flu or tuberculosis.

• Climate change and the environment
The carbon and nitrogen cycle are both critical to the functioning of the planet’s nutrition cycles and depend on bacteria. Some microbiologists’ research shows how microorganisms coexist with other animals in a variety of environments, including the ocean, salt lakes, and polar regions. Additionally, engineers and technologists collaborate with microbiologists to create cleaner energy sources derived from municipal and industrial waste.

• Food Availability and Agriculture
Millions of bacteria help us absorb nutrients from food and fight off harmful germs in our stomachs to keep us healthy. Microbiologists study how important soil bacteria are. Some focus on controlling plant diseases and pests, while others use microorganisms to manage weeds and insect pests. Others conduct studies on the microorganisms that afflict farm animals. Microbiologists are employed by numerous bioscience and food industries where they conduct research and create new goods.

Education:
The key steps to becoming a microbiologist after passing class 12th board exams are mentioned below:
• UG Preparation: Candidates can complete MBBS with Microbiology for UnderGrads including biochemistry or cell biology. The candidate should complete foundational courses in computer science, arithmetic, statistics, physics, microbial genetics, environmental microbiology, virology, and biochemistry. Candidates can also pursue B.Sc. with Microbiology. The candidates should be knowledgeable in lab sessions to pursue a career in microbiology in India. By enrolling in preparation classes, applicants should also start their PG admission preparation.
• PG Preparation: After finishing the UG course, the candidate can select to concentrate on PG courses that would work on the possibility of their vocation. M.Sc. in Microbiology can be sought after by the up-and-comers after the culmination of a B.Sc.

After getting your degree you also need to:

• Get some work experience: You might need to concentrate on acquiring work experience concurrently with or after your study. The study of microbiology offers opportunities for both intellectual involvement and practical application. You can apply for internships early on to acquire a good sense of the field and the career positions associated with it, depending on where your interest lies.
• Obtain a doctorate – You must earn a Ph.D. in your branch of microbiology if you intend to conduct independent research, work for a university or government research organization, or both. This covers academic practice, fieldwork, and education for conducting research. A post-graduate degree in a relevant topic with at least a 55% overall average is required for doctoral applications, which may additionally contain a minimum amount of relevant work experience.

Watch this to learn the right way to approach Microbiology

 

Few Career Opportunities for Microbiology Majors
Opportunities for employment in the government sector, hospitals, public health laboratories, research labs, and industrial laboratories are available to graduates with a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) degree in microbiology (food, dairy, chemical, pharmaceutical, and genetic engineering companies). Students who pursue degrees beyond the B.Sc have job options in these fields, along with teaching positions in colleges and universities, which come with greater responsibility and commensurately better pay.

* Some of the possible positions are:

-Technician for research laboratories
-Food or dairy microbiologist
-Microbial environmentalist
-Clinical microbiologist or immunologist
-Quality control analyst
-DNA technologists
-Veterinary microbiologists
-Microbial public health specialist
-Biomedical scientists
-Research assistants
-Food technologists
-Environmental microbiologists
-Clinical microbiologists
-Industrial microbiologists

Microbiological graduates are in high demand for their strong scientific, analytical, and problem-solving abilities. It is open to both the public and private sectors. Qualified microbiologists are employed by companies working in agriculture, food, and beverages, chemicals, environmental agencies, private hospitals, research institutes, universities, pharmaceutical companies, and laboratories. Numerous respected companies in India hire skilled microbiologists, including Pfizer, the Indian Hotel Company, Mascot International, the Piramal Group, Sun Pharma, Fortis Hospitals, Apollo Hospitals, Lakshmi Life Sciences, and others. Microbiologists are in high demand worldwide. Opportunities in fields such as healthcare companies, forensic science labs, environmental groups, higher education institutions, food, and beverage, publicly supported research groups, pharmaceuticals, and many more businesses are available to those who hold a degree in microbiology.

Benefits of a Career in Microbiology:

The significant advantages of choosing a career in microbiology are:

• Microbiologists are interested in the study of microorganisms and their various properties, which has a positive impact on their careers. The individual’s career skill set can be improved by using cutting-edge technology to examine the test and culture medium. Additionally, the possibility of participating in the development of a novel vaccine or viral solution can benefit the microbiologist’s career.
• The development of new vaccinations that can stop the spread of illnesses and save millions of lives become possible because of microbiologists.
• Microbiologists research the traits of the bacteria that aid in the creation of various foods and related goods. As a result of their unique experience, millions of people now have access to food security.

Microbiology Career Salary
With the required qualifications, you can earn an annual salary of around INR 3 lakhs as a microbiologist. Working for the government or a private company will earn you a respectable income as well as perks and other benefits. The annual income depends on the area of microbiology that the candidate has specialized in; for instance, a microbiologist can earn over INR 8 lakhs at the senior level, while an industrial microbiologist can earn over INR 5 lakhs at the senior level. Microbiologists with master’s or doctoral degrees can earn extremely significant salaries in both industries. The salary will also depend on a variety of things, like the company, industry, job description, location, etc. Experience is crucial in this industry as it gives you the chance to discover a specific vocation that suits you.
Microbiologists with experience are paid more in this specialty. Microbiology is not easy. Instead, it requires a lot of hard work, but again it is still considered highly competitive in the industry because of this. Experts in the field of microbiology must be well-educated, and well-trained. The field of microbiology will prove to be the best fit for you if you feel at ease working in laboratories and behind the scenes in academic research. If you enrol in one of the top universities offering microbiology courses in India, the field has a wide range of potential applications and can provide you with several international chances.

The prime goal of the discipline of Community Medicine is preventing disease, promoting health, and prolonging life, by providing comprehensive health care for the holistic health of the community. Hence, the discipline goes beyond classroom teaching and bedside patient care, to reach out to the community with a focus on underprivileged and marginalized population.

Community Medicine is a branch of Medicine dealing with the promotion of health and prevention of diseases, involving people’s participation and utilizing professional management skills. It is primarily focused on providing primary, secondary, and tertiary care, control and prevention of outbreaks or epidemics, community diagnosis, health needs assessment, epidemiological assessment, research, and planning evidence-based health policies and programs. Hence, the discipline covers all the domains of learning viz. cognitive, affective, and psychomotor as shown below (Figure 1).

• Cognitive domain i.e. knowing the vision and mission of the discipline
• Affective domain i.e. feeling and understanding the needs and demands of the community
• Psychomotor i.e. identifying problems and designing and implementing measures to solve these problems.

Figure 1: The domains of learning Community Medicine

Recently, the undergraduate (UG) and postgraduate (PG) medical curricula in India have been updated and subsequently implemented across the country from academic session 2019 onwards for UG and 2020 onwards for PG courses, as Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME). At the undergraduate level, there is an integration of the related disciplines, designed to give the students a holistic understanding of the various subjects to function appropriately and effectively as a physician of first contact. The new CBME curriculum for Community Medicine for UG students provides several learning opportunities, to provide comprehensive care to the community by way of the Family Adoption Program, along with theory and practical classes throughout the first three phases of the course. In addition, there is an elective posting for eight weeks after the third phase, for which the students can choose any of the options offered including posting at health centers for primary health care to the community. Finally, during the Internship, the students are posted in District Hospitals to get sensitized to the real-life situation in rural areas.

How to prepare yourself for examination in Community Medicine?

Considering the various domains of learning that Community Medicine covers, a student is also evaluated during examinations on all these aspects. Hence, you should prepare yourself by (1) reading standard textbooks and class notes for knowledge and understanding; (2) making frequent visits to the community and the families allotted to you; (3) attending practical teaching sessions in the community and public health organizations for assessing the problems and their solutions. In addition, you should attend practical classes on identifying spot specimens and working out epidemiological and statistical exercises.

You should learn to understand priority topics and give focus accordingly. There are some ‘must know’ areas which you have to learn for passing your examination as well as for knowing the subject that will help you life-long in delivering comprehensive care. There are some areas within the subject that you ‘should know’ which will help you to perform well in examination as well as improve your competence in being a physician of first contact. You should give adequate focus and time to these areas for doing well in your examinations. Having covered these areas, there are some ‘nice to know’ areas that will help you to perform excellently and thus stand out among your fellow students and professionals (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Priority areas for learning Community Medicine

What are the prime focus topics for examination in Community Medicine?

As you understand, every topic is important for learning to help you perform well in your examinations as well as gain expertise to become a competent and effective professional person. However, for prioritization, you may consider the following areas most important.

• Epidemiology and Biostatistics

• Problems of vulnerable population groups viz. infant and under-five children, adolescents, antenatal and postnatal women, women in reproductive age group, and the program in India for providing care for these population groups
• Communicable and non-communicable diseases with objectives and strategies under the related national health programs
• Major determinants of health viz. nutrition, water and sanitation, entomology, biomedical waste management
• Problems and programs for other vulnerable populations viz. occupational groups and elderly population
• Health education and behavior change communication
• Health planning, evaluation, and management techniques
• Health care delivery system in India with the major landmark international and national policies related to healthcare delivery

What are the learning resources for Community Medicine?

Community Medicine is learned from both print and electronic learning materials as well as real-life situations. Some of the standard books that you may follow are given below. However, this is not an exhaustive list. You may read any other book of your choice.

1. Kadri AM. IAPSM’s Textbook of Community Medicine
2. Banerjee B. DigiNerve’s Community Medicine for UnderGrads Course
3. Suryakantha AH. Community Medicine with Recent Advances
4. Banerjee B. DK Taneja’s Health Policies & Programmes in India
5. Banerjee B. Mahajan’s Method on Biostatistics for Medical Students and Research Workers.

In addition to these, there are reports and publications of the World Health Organization and Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, and other reputed national and international organizations, which are available on the internet, which you may read if interested.

A lot of Community Medicine can also be learned by following the current news, a great example of which is the recent COVID-19 pandemic for which various preventive and public health measures have been taken both globally and nationally.

Following what you have learned and disseminating messages of health promotion and disease prevention to those around you, will also help to improve your psychomotor skills.

What are the learning methods to perform well in examination in Community Medicine?

The secret of learning is to be regular, attentive, and hardworking. Since Community Medicine is taught right from the first year and continued for three and a half years, you should be regular throughout, failing which it will be difficult for you to catch up in the last moment. Hence, follow all the points given below.

• Attend all theory classes, practical sessions, and family visits, regularly and attentively
• Read the topic taught, after returning from class each day
• Try to understand the concepts and not only memorize
• Take class notes and make your notes for quick revision
• Focus first on priority areas i.e. ‘must know’ and ‘should know’
• Having understood these areas, you may try to move on to the ‘nice to know’ areas
• Revise multiple times
• Attempt solving previous years’ question papers and MCQs.

How will DigiNerve help you to learn Community Medicine?

The course material for Community Medicine for Undergrads on the DigiNerve app addresses all the domains of learning. The entire CBME syllabus has been split into five sections including one section on the practical aspect, with topics and units under each section. In the theory part covered in the first four sections, every aspect is discussed and explained in detail. The practical section presents how to study a family with an index case, along with pictures and salient features of spots and specimens, and how to solve epidemiological and statistical exercises to help you understand and work out by yourselves.

Watch this video to learn the Right way to approach Community Medicine by Dr. Bratati Banerjee.

So, welcome to the world of Community Medicine and happy learning!

Wish you all the best in your journey through the subject.

Dr. Bratati Banerjee
Director Professor, Department of Community Medicine,
Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi

In OBGYN, OB refers to Obstetrics or Obstetrician, a doctor who specializes in the care of women and their babies during pregnancy and childbirth. GYN stands for Gynecology or Gynecologist, a doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of female reproductive disorders. OBGYN is a branch of medicine that deals with the entire female reproductive health of pregnant as well as non-pregnant females.

OBGYNs diagnose and treat diseases of the female reproductive organs. They treat various other women’s health issues such as hormonal problems, menstruation issues, contraception, infertility, and reproductive tract infections. They also hold the responsibility of childbirth via normal delivery, cesarian sections, pregnancy complications, fetal signs, and growth and also help women with psychological distress and counseling.

ADMISSION PROCEDURE

The following steps are undertaken by students who aspire to become an OBGYN:

• From the beginning, aspirants must complete the senior secondary education with the PCB stream with at least 50% marks.
• Further, they should crack the NEET UG exam to get admission to medical college (Government/ Private).
• After obtaining an MBBS degree, they need to appear for the NEET- PG entrance examination.
• A good score in NEET-PG gives a push to admission to the medical college for the OBGYN PG course.
• Aspirants must complete a junior resident responsibility to gain a post-graduation degree.
• After the successful completion, they must obtain a license and become board certified.

ELIGIBILITY FOR BECOMING AN OBGYN DOCTOR

• Candidates should have completed an MBBS degree from a college/institution recognized by the Medical Council of India (MCI) with a minimum of 55% marks.
• They must have undergone the one-year compulsory internship after completing the course.
• Candidates must clear the NEET PG exam to be eligible for admission to recognized universities/colleges.
• For the general category, the candidate must obtain at least 50^th percentile marks in NEET PG for admission to MD/MS courses. For SC, ST, and OBC, the minimum percentage requirement is the 40^th
• For the candidate with benchmark disability specified under the Rights of Persons with Disability Act 2016, for the GEN-EWS and unreserved category 45^th percentile is required. For, SC/ST/OBC-NCL candidates, the minimum marks shall be 40^th
• In some cases, admission to post-graduate medical courses may also include a group discussion/personal interview after the entrance examination depending on the college.
• Final confirmation of admission depends on the cut-off marks and the counseling procedure.

OBGYN IN MBBS

MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery) is an undergraduate medical sciences course with a duration of 5.5 years including an internship. Admission to the MBBS is solely based on an entrance examination. The NEET (UG) entrance examination is the only valid examination to get admission in MBBS in government or private medical colleges recognized by MCI (Medical Council of India). A student needs to get into the merit list and undergo the counseling procedure for admission to MBBS successfully.

After getting admission to medical college, a student needs to learn various subjects like microbiology, pathology, pharmacology, medicine, pediatrics, OBGYN, community medicine, surgery, and more.

Undergraduate students study OBGYN in their 4^th prof, where they go through case discussions in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Along with this, a medico needs to complete a one-month OBGYN internship. During this internship, they get training in Obstetrics & Gynaecology OPD’s Wards and OTs, Labour Room, and Family Planning OPD and OT.

PG OBGYN AFTER MBBS

OBGYN is a three-year full-time postgraduate course in medical sciences. The course consists of a comprehensive, superior examination of the complete medical pathology related to the female reproductive organs, and provision of care to each non-pregnant and pregnant patient.

Admission to OBGYN MD is done through national-level entrance examinations like NEET-PG, and INI-CET. In PG OBGYN, students get familiar with the latest society guidelines, benchmark trials, and recent advancements in PCOS, Robotic Surgery, and performing clinical examinations. They are asked for pertinent tests, decipher the results, and implement medical/surgical management in the specialty clinics, OPD, wards, labor room, and operating rooms. They learn to use medical capabilities to evaluate troubles in pregnancy and discover techniques and relevant prognoses.
Watch this video to understand this important topic of OBGYN through case-based discussion

ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS FOR PURSUING PG OBGYN 

MBBS students need to undergo and crack the NEET-PG entrance examination for admission to medical college for PG OBGYN. The NEET (National Eligibility cum Entrance Test) is a national-level entrance examination for admission to pursue medical sciences; NEET UG for the undergraduate medical courses (MBBS, BDS, BAMS, BHMS), and NEET PG for the doctors to get admitted to various postgraduate courses (MD/MS) and diploma courses.

Admission for PG to government and private colleges depends on the ranking of the medicos in the NEET-PG entrance Examination. The examination body of NEET PG is the National Board of Examinations and further, the Directorate General of Health Services conducts the counselling and seat allotment process.

Institutes that are exempted from admission via the NEET PG exam are:

1. AIIMSs
2. PGIMER
3. JIPMER
4. NIMHANS
5. SCTIMST

These institutes come under the INI (Institute of National Importance).

To get admission to INI (Institute of National Importance) institutions, medicos must get into the merit of the INI-CET (Institute of National Importance Combined Entrance Test).

INI- CET is a combined entrance examination to the INI institutes for PG courses in medical Sciences [MD, MS, DM (6 years), MCh (6 years), and MDS]

List of Participating INI Institutes for INI-CET:

• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bathinda, Punjab
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bibinagar, Telangana
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Deoghar, Jharkhand
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Mangalagiri, Andhra Pradesh
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Nagpur, Maharashtra
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand
• Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Puducherry
• Postgraduate Institute of Medical Science and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh
• National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, Karnataka
• Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute of Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananathapuram, Kerala

NOTE:

MRCOG Examination:

This examination is specially designed by the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists for OBGYN doctors to assess their skills, knowledge, and competencies. This exam comprises three parts- MRCOG Part 1, MRCOG Part 2 & MRCOG Part 3. Membership of RCOGs is awarded upon the successful completion of all three stages of the exam.

TOP COLLEGES FOR PG IN OBGYN

Some of the colleges for admission to PG-OBGYN are listed below:

• All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
• Armed Forces Medical College, Pune
• IMS BHU- Indian Institute of Medical Sciences- Banaras Hindu University, Banaras
• Bangalore Medical College, Bangalore
• Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
• Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi
• JIPMER (Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research), Puducherry
• Government Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh
• King George Medical College, Lucknow
• Madras Medical College, Chennai
• Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
• Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi
• VMMC College, New Delhi
• Goa Medical College, Panaji

COURSE STRUCTURE OF PG OBGYN

There are four papers:

PAPER I: Applied Basic sciences: Physiology and anatomy of the female reproductive system, pharmacological and hormonal roles, obstetric and gynecological markers – non-neoplastic and neoplastic, medical genetics, anatomical and physiological changes in the female reproductive tract during pregnancy, pharmacology of drugs used during labor and after birth

PAPER II: Obstetrics including Social Obstetrics & Diseases of Newborn: Prenatal Care: Risky Pregnancy, Obstetrics: Postpartum, Vaginal delivery, caesarean section, Hysterectomy, Destructive Surgery, Manipulation (external/internal pod version, manual placental removal, etc.), Medical Abortion – Safe Abortion – Case Selection, Complication Techniques, and Treatment, MTP, newborn.

PAPER Ill: Gynecology: Clinical gynecology, Family Welfare, and demography, Male and female infertility.

PAPER IV: Recent Advances in Obstetrics & Gynaecology

• Along with four theory papers, doctors pursuing MD OBGYN have to do Practical Examinations in Obstetrics and Gynecology:

Clinical long case and short case including viva of:

• Instruments
• Pathological specimen,
• Medicines and X-rays, ultrasounds, etc.
• Dummy Pelvis
• Family planning
  THESIS:
• Students identify relevant research questions
• Conduct a critical literature review
• Hypothesize
• Determine the most appropriate study design
• State the purpose of the research
• Preparation of test protocols
• Conduct the study according to the protocol
• Analyze and interpret research data and draw conclusions
• Write a research paper
• PG OBGYN students are also required to complete their OBGYN residency and postings.

Watch this video to learn the right way to approach OBGYN MD

SCOPE/JOB OPPORTUNITIES AFTER MD IN GYNECOLOGY & OBSTETRICS

Undoubtedly, the course is highly respected, job oriented, and lucrative. This opens doors to a variety of job prospects such as Maternal-fetal medicine specialists, Reproductive endocrinologists, Gynecologic oncologists, Female pelvic specialists, critical care medicine specialists, professors, clinical associates, junior consultants, senior residents, consultants, general physicians, researchers, private practitioners, govt. doctors, and private clinicians. Moreover, the OBGYN can go for research and higher studies in research centres and universities.

FAQs (Frequently asked questions)

Q1.What is the difference between an Obstetrician and a Gynecologist?

Ans. A gynecologist is mainly trained in female reproductive care whereas an obstetrician cares for pregnant women and newborns.

Q2. Who is the first female Surgeon General in India?

Ans. Mary Poonen Lukose was an Indian gynecologist, obstetrician, and the first female Surgeon General in India.

Q3. Can a person pursue OBGYN without an MBBS degree?

Ans. Yes, one can pursue a career in OBGYN after a BAMS degree if not MBBS. A diploma course in OBGYN can be done as well after a BAMS degree.

Q4. How can I enter the OBGYN field?

Ans. You can undergo a three-year postgraduate course in OBGYN (MS/MD) after doing MBBS or a two-year diploma program of postgraduate training in Obstetrics and gynecology.

Most students think that medical education is only about clearing the entrance exam and getting admission to MBBS. However, the reality is way different than this perception. Clearing the exam isn’t the final step, rather, is the beginning of the life of a medical student. A medical degree is considered one of the toughest degrees in the world. For a student, it’s definitely more work because of the unlimited workload and the time limit, which means a lot less sleep and a lot more stress.

Top Struggles of MBBS Students are:

1. Adjusting with peers: Medical colleges are responsible for ensuring that graduates are knowledgeable, skilful, and professional to meet society’s expectations. Due to this, students have to prepare themselves for the vast syllabus while also adjusting with peers. There is huge peer pressure on medical students when it comes to adjusting themselves in the new environment due to high level of competition.
2. Wow! You are smart, you should be a doctor: Medical might not be the hardest choice for aspirants but the journey is indeed very hard. Students put in all the efforts, and energy to enter the clinical world; the world that includes a lot of hard work, sleepless nights, countless hours of study, and whatnot. However, there are many students who give their 100 percent just to satisfy that One Big Dream of their family and relatives, at the cost of their happiness.
3. Do you have a social life? When it comes to a medical student’s social life, the status is quite complicated. Students get trapped with books, assignments and practices, etc. that they can’t focus much on their social life. Although medicine is a very social course and being a healthcare professional, students must know how to deal with people. To take time out for social activities, students need to maintain a schedule that allows them to manage it all.
4. Start the day and end the day with medicine: – The primary motivation is to enjoy studying. Exhaustion due to continuous studies can make medical college seem like a burden. So students must divert their attention from studies a bit and focus on “personal development.” This involves honing talents that fall outside the purview of academic study yet are nevertheless crucial for a doctor. For instance, participating in music or theatre can help students get used to performing or interacting in front of a large audience. This also helps them to confidently address and speak at a conference or simply to a group of their coworkers. There is a balance that needs to be achieved between working and enjoying life.
5. You have to memorize so many new drugs, that your brain might explode: The most problematic situation that students face is that they need to cram names of thousands of new drugs and various syndromes, which is confusing. Also since these drugs are vast along with their own different characteristics, it is easy to forget a few. This is not the end, memorizing drugs also includes knowing their purposes, advantages, and disadvantages, after effects, and what all changes can be possible, which also includes how they respond in every individual’s body.

Watch Video to learn the right way to approach Pharmacology in MBBS

6. The unending workload: – It is a popular talking point that a medical student’s life in med college is endless. The reason behind this is that medical courses are the longest courses in the educational world. It nearly takes a decade to become a fully qualified doctor. The entire journey demands a lot of hard work, sleepless nights, and a huge number of complications. It is not easy to maintain patience throughout this period and often students lose themselves in the wheel of practicals, rounds, syllabus, and examinations.
7. Finance: – Finance is a huge problem for a medical aspirant. How? Not all medical aspirants belong to financially stable families, and neither do all receive government scholarships. Many students dream to become a doctor, but again finances remain a challenge. Medical studies are considered one of the most expensive education all over the world. It is a vast and expensive course. If a student does not have an adequate amount of money, pursuing a medical degree can be challenging. If this problem arises while a student is pursuing the course, students should always have a backup option.
8. Exams Breakdown: – Exams have always been a huge load. Even the thought of it is scary because the syllabus is so vast that sometimes the duration of preparation tends to seem less. There’s no doubt medical life is filled with competitors, which makes the exam period even more stressful. Skipping topics is another aspect that makes it stressful while spending more time on important topics. Additionally, lack of sleep, headaches, and stress can easily lead to breakdowns.
9. A good night’s sleep is a wonder for you: – Back-to-back classes, practicals, and whatnot get tiresome for them. Most students have sleepless nights because of assignments, many even suffer from sleep deprivation or poor sleep quality which is common during the internship. Researchers have paid much attention to the critical function that sleep plays in preserving mental health, advanced learning, and overall welfare. From 1st year to the final year, medical students are particularly prone to sleep-related problems due to the huge syllabus. So it is very important for students to at least have 6 – 8 hours of sound sleep.

Life of Students in the 1st year of MBBS:

Medical College is nothing like high school; it is challenging not simply because there is so much knowledge to gain, but also because students get to learn new skills. Students mostly in their first year, try to understand what kind of studying technique works to cover the syllabus. The first year is all about learning, failing and again understanding where you were wrong and then starting again.

Life in college doesn’t resemble the medical drama– Grey’s Anatomy in reality. No one goes to the clinical rounds in the first year itself. In the first year, students study Biophysics, Anatomy, and Histology and prepare for tests most of the days.

In the first year, it’s not all about saving lives. The only life students can save is theirs, by fixing a decent study routine for themselves, figuring out how to adjust their studies and things they like doing beyond studying and getting sufficient rest.

Life of Students in the 2nd year of MBBS:

It’s the best time to retrospect and make a schedule that can help students manage studies, social life, and sleep. The one benefit students have in their 2nd year is that they get familiar with the environment, faculty, and course too, so it becomes a bit easy for them to communicate and discuss their problems in the class or with the faculty. It gets even easier to make a schedule that can be followed given that students get quite familiar with the frequency of classes, practicals, and tests.

Life of Students in the 3rd year of MBBS:

It is very much like climbing one more step and reaching one step near to the goal of becoming a Top Doc. Becoming more focused on studies and attending a lot of practicals are included in the 3rd year. It is time for students to get exposed to the practical technicalities of the field. Students become familiar with everyday struggles in 3^rd year; they feel the sensation of being worn out, because of classes and clinical rounds. They need to have some sort of framework, whether it be a paper journal or a schedule reminder turned on on their mobile phones.

Life of Students in the 4th year of MBBS:

The significant cause of the pressure students face in the final year is due to the major subjects like Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, OBGYN, Orthopaedics, etc. which are highly important for NEET PG. They experience maximum stress when they start going for rounds. Medicine is a long-distance race, not a run. Regardless of whether students complete their last year, it isn’t the end. They still need to learn a lot more because now their real life as interns and saviours begin. It’s now time to put all the knowledge into application.

Get conceptual clarity in Medicine from Dr. Archith Boloor

Passing the final exam in MBBS is crucial to starting your career as a doctor. Students must focus on conceptual clarity to clear the final exams. Discipline and dedication are the keys to mastering the syllabus. Moreover, aspirants that are pursuing the MBBS program at any medical college must complete the internship. An internship is a term of learning, or, to put it in simple words, more practical work than theoretical training. The internship phase is where you put all of the theoretical information you’ve learned over the last four years into action.

You should have a proper plan if you are going to enrol yourself as a medical student, it is a long ride with lots of struggle, hard work, failures, and whatnot. The medical course is exceptionally vast due to the volume of material that needs to be learned along with both the basic scientific principles and the clinical abilities. Keeping in mind the surreal feeling that a doctor feels while saving someone’s life is something that can’t be put into words, and furthermore, the feeling of saving somebody’s life is simply inexplicable. Once your goal is set and you are ready for it, it is definitely going to be the best chapter of your life.

WHAT IS AN ADENOID?

Adenoid is a subepithelial collection of lymphoid tissue situated at the junction of the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. It is also known as nasopharyngeal tonsil, having vertical ridges of lymphoid tissue separated by deep clefts.

• It is covered by three epithelium i.e., transitional, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and stratified squamous.
• Having no crypts and capsules.
• It is included in the waldeyer’s ring of lymphoid tissue.
• It is present at birth but shows physiological enlargement up to 6 yrs and then starts atrophy at puberty.
• It disappears by age of 20.
• It is seen in MRIs of all infants by the age of 5 months.
• The persistence of adenoids can be seen beyond the age of 15 years in case of allergy or infection.
• One in number
• Lymphatics from this tissue drain into upper jugular nodes directly or indirectly through retropharyngeal and Para pharyngeal lymph nodes.
• Arterial supply from ascending palatine branch of the al artery, ascending pharyngeal branch of the external carotid artery, ascending branch of the third part of the maxillary artery, and inferior thyroid artery’s ascending cervical branch.
• Sometimes inflammation of the adenoid lead to pain in the ear due to the same nerve supply as cranial nerves IX and X (referred pain) or can be due to eustachian tube obstruction.

ADENOID HYPERTROPHY

It is an obstructive condition due to the enlargement of the adenoid which can be physiological enlargement in childhood or due to some infections or allergic conditions.

WHAT IS THE ETIOPATHOGENESIS OF HYPERTROPHY?

• Recurrent sinusitis, rhinitis, or chronic infection of tonsils lead to chronic adenoid infection and hyperplasia of lymphoid tissue which results in adenoid hypertrophy.
• Allergy to the upper respiratory tract may lead to the enlargement of adenoids.
• Viral infections like EBV or bacterial infection of group A streptococci can lead to its enlargement.
• Exposure to smoking or pollution.
• Tumours of sinuses, lymphoma, and AIDS
• Due to diseases like GERD, there is a reflux of acid that will irritate the adenoid tissue leading to inflammation and resulting in hypertrophy.

HOW PATIENTS WILL PRESENT TO YOU IN OPD? 

Signs and Symptoms

These depend not only on the size of the adenoid mass but also on the space that is available for enlargement in the nasopharynx. Excessive hypertrophy of the adenoid can lead to obstruction of the whole nasopharynx. In cases of enlargement, the patient may be asymptomatic but in severe enlarged and infected adenoids, the patient presents nasal, aural, and general symptoms.

1. Nasal Symptoms

The commonest symptom is nasal obstruction due to recurrent sinusitis and this leads to mouth breathing. Nasal obstruction leads to interference in the suckling or feeding of a child. As respiration and feeding cannot occur together, the child fails to thrive as all his efforts go into breathing which will lead to suboptimal growth of the child. There will be nasal discharge due to choanal obstruction as the normal secretion cannot drain back into the nasopharynx and is associated with chronic maxillary sinusitis and the child has a wet bubbly nose.

When adenoids are acutely inflamed, epistaxis can occur when the patient blows his nose. Voice change can be seen i.e. toneless and losing nasal quality due to nasal obstruction and there will be rhinolalia clausa i.e. hyponasal or denasal speech due to lack of appropriate nasal airflow during speech.

2. Aural Symptoms

Tubal Obstruction: Adenoid mass blocks the eustachian tube leading to retraction of the tympanic membrane and conductive hearing loss. Recurrent attacks of acute otitis media may occur due to the spread of infection through the eustachian tube. CSOM may fail to resolve in presence of infected adenoids. There will be fluctuating hearing loss due to differences in the size of the mass of the adenoid. Impedance audiometry test helps to identify fluid in the ear due to the presence of glue ear that is otitis media with effusion.

3. General Symptoms

Adenoid Facies: Chronic nasal obstruction and mouth breathing lead to characteristic facial appearance.

• Dull expression because he is unable to hear and elongated face, open mouth, prominent and crowded upper teeth, hitched up upper lip, pinched up nose because the child is a mouth breather so there will be no use of nose for a long time for breathing that will lead to disuse atrophy of alar prominence, nasal crease and labial folds will be absent, high arched palate because the child is breathing through the mouth and as the mouth is continuously open, more air goes through the palate.
• Pulmonary hypertension: As the child snores a lot during the night and there is sleep apnoea (episodes of not breathing during sleep), the child gets up again and again during the night and is unable to have a good night’s sleep. This results in sleepiness and lethargy throughout the day. In sleep apnoea, so many episodes of deoxygenation happen that the pulmonary artery undergoes vasoconstriction which leads to pulmonary hypertension and results in right-sided heart failure. The final consequence is cor pulmonale.
• Aprosexia i.e. lack of concentration in studies.

How can the diagnosis be done?

• Posterior Nasal Rhinoscopy: Examination of postnasal space in young children using a mirror from which adenoid mass can be visualized.
• Nasal endoscopy: Done with the help of a rigid or flexible nasopharyngoscope which helps in assessing the size of adenoid mass from which grading can be done. It is done on cooperative children. It provides more details on the nasopharynx.
• Soft tissue lateral radiograph of the nasopharynx: Done if the child is uncooperative as it will reveal the size of the adenoid and also the extent to which nasopharyngeal air space is compromised. There will be very little breathing space in the nasopharynx in severely enlarged mass.

MANAGEMENT 

Medical Management

If symptoms are not marked i.e. where there is acute infection, then the investigation is not needed since it can be addressed clinically too.

To decrease the size of the adenoid, the following measures can be taken:

1. Breathing exercises
2. Dietary changes
3. Lifestyle modification
4. Decongestant nasal drop (Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline that will relieve nasal obstruction).
5. Antihistamines e.g. levocetirizine are given if there is hypertrophy due to allergy.
6. Antibiotics like Amoxicillin with clavulanic acid are given if it is due to infection.
7. Intranasal steroid spray can be given like Fluticasone.
8. Proton pump inhibitor can be given in case of GERD

Surgical Treatment

Surgery is the last resolve because adenoids have immunological functions, and thus it is done only when symptoms become chronic.

1. Adenoidectomy: It is done in a rose position in which the patient’s larynx is at a higher level in which the cervicothoracic joint and the atlantooccipital joint are in an extended position under general anesthesia. It is done using endoscopy by two methods i.e. cold (microdebrider, curettage) and hot (coblation, laser).

Indication of Surgery

1. Sleep apnoea
2. Chronic suppurative otitis media
3. Recurrent sinusitis
4. Dental malocclusion

Complication of Surgery

1. Haemorrhage
2. Coroner’s clot
3. Eustachian tube injury
4. Griesel syndrome

Contraindication of Surgery

1. Velopharyngeal insufficiency
2. Cleft palate
3. Bleeding diathesis
4. Acute infection

 

2. Adenoidectomy + Tonsillectomy: It is done when there is a chronic tonsillitis infection. The child will be sedated in the operating room throughout the procedure. His tonsils and adenoids will be removed by the surgeon through the mouth. The skin won’t be cut in any way.

Indication of Surgery:

1. Obstructive sleep apnoea
2. Chronic tonsillitis
3. Trouble swallowing

Complication of Surgery:

1. Difficulty in breathing
2. Fever
3. Bleeding
4. Dehydration

Most 3^rd year students look for online resources to learn Community Medicine along with ENT. Watch this snippet to learn about Epidemiological Research.

FAQs (Frequently asked questions)

Q1. How an adenoid hypertrophy patient will present to you?

Ans. The child’s mouth would have been open for the past few weeks and he might not be responding. It would be seen only when the season changes or if the child is allergic to any substance.

Q2. Why an adenoidectomy is contraindicated in velopharyngeal insufficiency?

Ans. In velopharyngeal condition, the child is supposed to have regurgitation of food from the nose and hyponasal speech post-surgery so it is not advised to perform adenoidectomy in such patients.

Q3. How adenoid hypertrophy can be differentiated from an antrochoanal polyp?

Ans.  In polyp, the crescent or Dodd sign is present whereas it is absent in adenoid hypertrophy.

During the preparation of Orthopaedics for NEET Exam, you must have an idea of what all important topics need to be thoroughly prepared. Moreover, a strategical approach while preparing for NEET PG 2023 Exam can help you cover everything within the given timeframe.

Some of the main topics that you must cover before appearing for the NEET PG 2023 Exam:

Watch the video to learn Fracture Intercondylar, Supracondylar and Lateral Condyle of Humerus.

Few points to keep in mind before starting your NEET- PG Exam preparation:

• Be familiar with the entire syllabus: The NEET-PG syllabus is vast and you must have an idea about every topic, short or lengthy. It is important to know the topics that are highly mandatory to cover so that you can bring out the best. Make sure you cut down on the extra information and focus on the most-asked topics saving time for revision.
• Create a Realistic Timetable: While following a fixed timetable, stay focused on your goal and prepare everything accordingly. Following a well-structured timetable will help you organize your time according to the length and depth of a topic. One thing that you have to keep in mind is that you must strictly follow the timetable you have made.
• Prepare Notes while Learning: This is one of the best methods while you are preparing for your exams. Making notes not only helps you study and concentrate but even helps with your writing and revising. You don’t have to go through everything before your exam day, just pick up your well-structured notes, start revising and you are good to go.
• High-Quality Study Material: Selecting the right material for your exam is very important. You might get a lot of sample books, papers, and mock tests online but with the help of teachers or online experts, you’ll get the right guidance. Clinical examinations, procedure videos, X-rays, implants and instruments are the most important to focus on in Orthopaedics. Doing all these might help you improve your speed and accuracy.

Following these tips consistently, might help you do well in your NEET-PG Exam and score high.

The purpose of studying Orthopaedics by the latest curriculum

The treatment of the musculoskeletal system is the main emphasis of the medical specialty of orthopaedics. Along with bones and muscles, this system also consists of joints, ligaments, and tendons. The curriculum aims to provide students with a basic understanding of the musculoskeletal system. The competency-based programme places a strong emphasis on evaluating students’ aptitude for accurately examining and diagnosing musculoskeletal problems.

MBBS Students should keep the following points in mind before approaching Orthopaedics for NEET PG:

• Do thorough research:

It is crucial to investigate and analyse the right way to study Orthopaedics. MBBS is one of the hardest degrees to obtain, but it’s not impossible if you do your homework and focus on your field of interest. While studying Orthopaedics, pay close attention to the textbook and do refer to supplementary information with the help of online orthopaedics lectures or videos. In addition to that, the best Orthopaedics book for medical students is Maheshwari’s Orthopaedics book, which covers information most precisely. It will help you to gain a better understanding of what is asked in the NEET PG 2023 Exam and get exposed to maximum case scenarios to make informed decisions in the future.

• Guidance from experts

Look out for lectures by India’s top faculty. You can also refer to online orthopaedics courses that are designed and taught by experts who have years of experience in the medical field. Attend webinars or doubt-clearing sessions if you are curious to learn or have difficulty understanding some topics. Also, approach your college faculty for instant guidance. If you want to enjoy learning orthopaedics, then the best course to check out would be Orthopaedics for Undergrads by Dr. Vivek Pandey.

• Ensure the notes that you have are accurate and easily understandable:

Every course has a specific set of materials to ensure that you read everything to better understand it. Having well-organized notes can be quite helpful because it gets easier to review them before the exam. Going through notes also helps in brushing up on knowledge and self-assessment. Medical books are excellent and informative, but without access to properly organised notes, it will be difficult for students to remember difficult concepts.

• Devote Time Wisely:

Choose wisely whether you want to go for online Orthopaedics learning or offline learning. Most toppers prefer to complete the textbook first and find different ways for clarity online. This could be by youtube videos, online courses for medical students, or lectures by eminent faculty. As it is known that NEET PG/NExT Exam will cover clinical case scenarios, however, most textbooks only cover limited case scenarios. This is the reason why students prefer learning online for better exposure to case discussions.

• Evaluation:

The only way to accurately evaluate how much you know about the fundamentals of orthopaedics is through a series of tests. To keep your memory sharp and assess your knowledge, look for a course that combines solid content with outstanding and frequent assessments. This will ensure you are aware of the most frequently asked questions and exam-ready.

Learn the right way to approach Orthopaedics in MBBS

How is Orthopaedics as a Career?

An orthopaedic specialist is referred to as an orthopaedist. Orthopaedists treat a range of musculoskeletal conditions including sports injuries, joint discomfort, and back disorders, using both surgical and nonsurgical methods. An orthopaedist often works as part of a large orthopaedic treatment team. This team may consist of some medical assistants like nurse practitioners, athletic trainers, occupational therapists, and physician assistants.

Several musculoskeletal problems are treated by orthopaedic surgeons. These diseases could be inherited or developed due to trauma or aging-related wear and tear. The field of medicine known as Orthopaedics is dedicated to the treatment of the skeletal system and all of its connected components. These components consist of Joints, Bones, Tendons, Muscles, and Ligaments.

Being an orthopaedic surgeon requires the following requirements:

• Graduate as a licensed doctor or a Doctor of Osteopathy from a recognised medical school.
• Complete 5 years of training in an orthopaedic residency programme that has been awarded by the Certification Council for Graduate Medical Education.
• A medical degree and, if desired, board certification to stay current and keep your certification, you must complete ongoing training and tests.

Some of the most typical ailments that an orthopaedist may treat are listed below:

• Bone fractures
• Back ache
• Injury to the soft tissues (muscles, tendons, and ligaments)
• Joint pain from arthritis
• A stiff neck
• Congenital conditions, such as scoliosis and clubfoot

Following are a few orthopaedic subspecialties:

• Trauma Treatment
• Foot and Ankle
• Spine Surgery
• Musculoskeletal Oncology (tumor)
• Hand and Upper Extremity
• Pediatric Orthopaedics
• Joint replacement surgery
• Sport Medicine

Scope in Orthopaedics

For those with a degree in orthopaedics, Orthopaedic surgeons have a wide range of employment options available to them, and their path to professional advancement is relatively direct.

• Orthopaedic surgeons have extensive expertise in conditions that affect the musculoskeletal system, including illnesses and injuries. It includes the muscles, tendons, bones, nerves, and ligaments.
• They address injuries like broken hips, degenerative diseases like osteoporosis and arthritis, as well as congenital issues like scoliosis.
• They can enlist in the military, including the army or navy.
• According to personal preference, an orthopaedist can begin their career working for prestigious hospitals in either the public or private sector.
• Holders of an orthopaedic degree have a wide range of additional choices, including the possibility of opening their own clinic and offering medical services to clients.
• Alternatively, as an orthopaedic doctor, you could choose to teach at colleges and universities or work in research. Orthopaedists with a doctoral degree can find employment in reputable public hospitals like AIIMS and PGIMER, as well as private hospitals like Fortis, Apollo, and others.
• They are also eligible for employment in the rehabilitation facilities that sports and defence groups have set up.

Surgery is a versatile subject in the study of medicine that helps in defining the patient’s course of treatment. Integration of surgery with important disciplines such as Anatomy, Pathology, Medicine, and others has become essential in the contemporary CBME curriculum. This has made it much easier for students to study the subject holistically and strengthen the foundation holistically.

Surgery for UnderGrads

It is a comprehensive resource that serves as a one-stop solution for undergraduate students’ academic needs. India’s one of the most prominent faculty and authors, Dr. Sriram Bhat, who is well-known for his book “SRB’s Manual of Surgery” has designed and taught this course. SRB’s Clinical Methods in Surgery, SRB’s Bedside Clinics in Surgery, SRB’s Surgical Operations: Text and Atlas, and Jaypee Gold Standard Mini Atlas Series Surgical Diseases are among his most popular titles. His extensive experience in both teaching and practising surgery has aided in the development of the entire course to meet the demands of undergraduate students. The course includes three pillars of surgery:

• Clinical Surgery: Initial Diagnosis
• Surgical Evaluation: When, what, why with images and other methods of evaluations
• Operative Surgery: Skill

The course’s main purpose is to get students to focus on the skill of observation, deduction, and knowledge, as well as the practical application of all the important concepts. By focusing on the essentials of the subject, the course aids in the development of a strong foundation. This makes it one of the best online surgery courses for MBBS students. The course is divided into 3 sections:

• General Surgery
• Systemic & Specialty Surgery
• Clinics in Surgery involve history taking, physical examinations, instruments, investigations, and operative surgery.

Clinical examination and differential diagnosis have been given top priority throughout the course. This will aid in the development of the student’s critical comprehension to effectively evaluate, diagnose, and manage the patient. Dr. Sriram Bhat has also demonstrated how to conduct a clinical examination in a variety of situations in real-life clinical scenarios along with the fundamentals of general surgery. This will aid in the development of concepts for all students. Surgical anatomy is a crucial element of operational surgery, and it has been covered alongside the majority of the structures and systems to provide students with a thorough understanding.

Surgical equipment and X-rays have their own part to familiarise students with the relevant information and application. They also serve as a valuable tool for last-minute revision before the final clinical tests because they are an integral part of the clinical exams. There are crucial questions for university examinations, PG entrance tests, and viva voce for each topic, as well as theoretical components with practical points for operative procedures.

This online surgery course is designed to meet the educational needs of both medical undergraduate and first-year postgraduate students.

The Course Includes:

• Video Lectures: 220 hours of in-depth video lectures covering 176 subjects provide detailed clarity for theory as well as clinical applications. Images and graphs are used to supplement these.
• Lecture Notes: 161 concise notes will assist students in skimming through the topics discussed during the lectures.
• MCQs for Self-Assessment: Students can assess their understanding of the topics by practising 2500+ MCQs.
• Physical and clinical examination in real-time clinical settings: This will help students to understand cases and arrive at differential diagnoses through reasoning.

 

Table of Content – Surgery for UnderGrads

 

General Surgery

Swellings

Examination of the swelling

Examination of the neck swelling

Clinical examination of swelling – video

Different swellings – Differential diagnoses

Differential Diagnoses – Neck Swellings

---

Ulcer

Examination of ulcer

Clinical examination of ulcer – video

Different ulcers – Differential diagnoses

Examination of Sinus and Fistula

---

Arterial Diseases

Clinical examination in arterial diseases

Clinical examination in vascular disease – Video

Peripheral arterial occlusive diseases

Lower limb ischaemia and management of arterial diseases

Aneurysms

Acute arterial occlusion

Upper limb ischemia and related conditions

Amputations

Vascular lesions and malformations

---

Venous Diseases

Examination of varicose veins

Video – Examination of varicose veins

Varicose veins

Venous ulcer, DVT, anticoagulants, VTE

---

Lymphatic System

Examination of lymphatic system and lymph nodes

Video – Examination of lymph nodes (in lymphatic system)

Surgical anatomy of lymphatics and lymphoedema

---

Hernia

Examination of hernia

Video – Examination of hernia

Hernia, general features, surgical anatomy

Inguinal hernia, features, management

Other hernias and technique of local anaesthesia in hernia

Ventral hernia – types and biomaterials used in hernia

---

Inguinoscrotal Swellings

Examination of inguinoscrotal and scrotal swellings

Examination of male external genitalia

Video – Examination of scrotum and male external genitalia

Diseases of the Scrotum

Diseases of the penis

Diseases of testis

Testicular tumours

---

Miscellaneous

Burns

Shock

Reconstruction

Haemorrhage

Infections

Electrolytes and fluid therapy

Nutrition

Obesity

Neoplasms

Hand and foot

Peripheral nerves

Transplantation

Adjuvant therapy

Day care surgery and surgical audit

---

Oral cavity

Examination of oral cavity

Video- Examination of oral cavity

Diseases of the oral cavity

Diseases of the alveolus, lip and tongue

---

Jaw, pharynx, larynx, nasal cavities

Examination of jaw tumours; Related diseases

Examinations of pharynx, larynx, nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses

---

Salivary Glands

Examination of salivary glands

Video – Examination of salivary neoplasms

Surgical anatomy and diseases of the salivary glands

Salivary neoplasms and their management

---

Qbanks

 

Systemic & Specialty Surgery

Thyroid

Examination of thyroid patient and evaluation

Video – Examination of thyroid swelling

Surgical anatomy of thyroid and congenital anomalies

Diseases of the thyroid gland

Thyrotoxicosis

Thyroid neoplasms

Thyroiditis, thyroidectomy

---

Parathyroid

---

Adrenal Glands

---

Breast

Examination in breast diseases

Video – Examination of breast lump

Surgical anatomy of breast and investigations in breast lump

Diseases of the breast

Carcinoma breast -– etiology, pathology, features

Management of carcinoma of breast

---

Dysphagia and Oesophagus

Examination of dysphagia and surgical anatomy of oesophagus

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) – 1

Oesophageal motility and other disorders of the oesophagus

Tumours of the oesophagus

---

Examination of Abdomen

Examination in chronic abdominal diseases

Examination of mass abdomen

Examination of acute abdomen

Video – Examination of chronic abdomen, mass abdomen and acute abdomen

---

Stomach

Surgical anatomy, investigations in diseases of the stomach

Diseases of the stomach

---

Small Intestine

Surgical anatomy and diseases of small intestine

---

Large Intestine

Large intestine – surgical anatomy and diseases

Diseases of large intestine

---

Intestinal Obstruction

---

Rectum and Anal Canal

Surgical anatomy rectum and anal canal

Examination of rectum and anal canal

Video – Examination of rectum and anal canal

Rectum and anal canal (carcinoma rectum)

Diseases of rectum and anal canal

---

Appendix

Surgical anatomy and diseases of the appendix

Diseases of appendix

---

Liver

Surgical anatomy of liver, functions of liver, liver function tests, liver trauma, liver cysts

Portal hypertension

Infections of the liver

Tumours of the liver

Hepatic resection, liver transplantation

---

Gallbladder

Surgical anatomy of gallbladder and congenital anomalies

Gallbladder stones (Gall stones) and acute cholecystitis

Chronic cholecystitis, surgical jaundice and other conditions of the gallbladder

Gallbladder and biliary neoplasm and other condition

Cholecystectomy

---

Spleen

Surgical anatomy of spleen and Splenic Injury

Splenomegaly and related conditions

Splenectomy and other diseases of spleen

---

Pancreas

Surgical anatomy of pancreas

Acute Pancreatitis

Pseudocyst of pancreas

Chronic pancreatitis

Pancreatic tumours

Other surgical conditions of the pancreas

---

Abdominal Wall and Umbilicus

Diseases of abdominal wall and umbilicus

---

Abdominal Tuberculosis

---

Peritoneum

Peritoneum and peritonitis

Pelvic and subphrenic abscess, peritoneal, mesenteric and omental diseases

---

Retroperitoneum

---

Cardiothoracic Surgery

Diseases of thorax

---

Neurosurgery

---

Urology

Kidney, ureter

Urinary bladder

Prostate

Urethera

---

Trauma

Trauma (Wounds) – 1

Trauma – 2

---

Qbanks

 

Clinics in Surgery

History taking in surgery

General Physical Examination

Video – General examination

Surgical instruments

Surgical instruments video

Investigations in surgical patients

X-rays of surgical importance

Surgical pathology

Operative surgery

Anaesthesia and surgery

 

Learn the right way with Surgery for UnderGrads

Surgery is a much broader term, and learning about specific clinical disorders like the acute abdomen, surgical emergencies like testicular torsion and trauma, and obtaining more exposure to those who require more attention are all part of the MBBS syllabus. Surgery for UnderGrads is designed keeping in mind that students’ minds are trained in meticulous, correct appraisal and quick decision-making as a result of their exposure to cases. Therefore, it exposes them to common ‘surgical’ issues including skin lesions, ‘lumps and bumps,’ and hernias can also help enhance their knowledge.

Clinics in Surgery make sure that students can learn the fundamentals of obtaining histories, performing clinical examinations, and ordering the necessary investigations. Surgical clinics make students familiar with patients who have detailed histories and physical symptoms.

Students will also get the opportunity to improve their communication skills by learning how to explain difficult procedures and prognoses, as well as gain consent and deliver bad news in a kind and understandable manner to worried or depressed patients. A student’s knowledge of the reasons for a particular operation, the skill of cautious patient selection, the limitations of surgery, and its curative value improves in this situation. Undergraduates benefit from a unique educational experience in the operating room, which allows them to integrate and consolidate their information. In order to obtain a comprehensive knowledge of what is involved and how anatomy relates to pathology, students must be able to observe normal and pathological tissues as well as procedures up close.

Medical students may get the opportunity to learn about post-operative problems and the importance of careful, regular observation and contingency planning after the operation is completed. The course provides the student with unique insights into patient care and the opportunity to see the direct application of anatomy and physiology principles to clinical practise at each stage.

 

Best way to study Surgery

• Study Smart

There’s no doubt that during medical school, students are required to study extensively. It would be nearly hard to acquire the necessary skills and information to become a skilled doctor unless they put in the time and effort that is needed. Every medical student will study, collect knowledge, and uniquely organise their study hours to be more productive and efficient. Studying in a group might help them examine their knowledge by allowing them to discuss and ask questions. However, if their classmates aren’t as dedicated as they are, studying alone can help them avoid distractions.

• Sleep enough to wake up refreshed

Sleep deprivation is common during exam season when students overlook their own health in order to focus on revision. However, they need to be aware of the fact that a good night’s sleep provides them with a cognitive boost the next morning. It also ensures that they are healthy, study better, and feel more motivated. Being weary during an important lecture might divert them from their goal of being a Top Doc. Making a note of sleeping habits, creating a timetable, and sticking to it would help a lot.

• Volunteer for college societies 

Participating in social events in MBBS helps students build their soft skills. Although the profession of a doctor requires skills and knowledge, it is equally important to have a sense of empathy. A great doctor is the one who understands, relates to, and connects with his or her patients, as well as their families. Communication is the key to understanding the physical and mental pain of the patient as well as being able to share the consequences and after-effects with them. This is required because doctors meet people from different social backgrounds, personalities, and behaviours regularly.

• Seek guidance from the right mentors

Mentors are the companions for life, the only difference being that they are way more experienced. In order to improve their skills and become highly qualified doctors, students must seek assistance from experts who can guide them patiently. Doctors who also teach at medical school have great worth and can guide students on the right path to their future job. Academic advisors, professors, and teaching assistants are the ones students seek advice from during their medical career.

Scope of Surgery after MBBS

Undergraduate students must complete their master’s degree to become a surgeon. Preoperative and postoperative care are both important aspects of becoming a surgeon, with the goal of returning patients to their natural physiologic state. Master of Surgery graduates’ career options and job prospects are as diverse as those of a physician in other specialties. Many people select this job because it allows them to witness a great deal of change. Surgeons must keep their abilities up to date in order to satisfy the changing needs of their patients. This is a fantastic job choice for those who like a challenge.

To diagnose and treat patients, modern hospitals require people with technological skills and competence. Students with a master’s in surgery can go for higher studies to gain an edge or update their skills. Aspirants can build a career as vascular surgeons, plastic surgeons, researchers, neonatal surgeons, and many more.

 

FAQs

Q1. Is surgery a good career to pursue?

A surgeon’s career can be immensely fulfilling because he or she has the opportunity to save people’s lives. In the operating room, a surgeon’s technical knowledge and talents have a noticeable impact on a patient’s health.

Q2. By when do you become a surgeon?

Surgical residents begin their training between the ages of 24 and 30 years old.

Q3. Can an MBBS doctor perform surgery?

An MBBS doctor without a PG degree is now prohibited from performing operations, anaesthetic treatments, or C-sections.

Pharmacology is the scientific study of how pharmaceuticals and chemicals impact living beings. A drug is any chemical molecule, natural or manmade, that has an effect on a biological system. It could include studying how organisms process medications, identifying and validating new drug targets, and designing and developing new drugs to prevent, treat, and cure disease.

Within the broad field of pharmacology, there are numerous sub-specialties- Pharmacodynamics is the study of medications’ impacts on biological systems, with a focus on the chemical characteristics, physiological, and behavioral consequences of drugs resulting from interactions with molecular targets like receptor proteins or enzyme systems. Pharmacokinetics, on the other hand, is the study of how biological systems interact with drugs. It includes studies of drug absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion, which provide critical information for the design of drug treatment schedules in various patient populations and experimental animals, as well as the prediction of drug-drug interactions that may improve or compromise the efficacy and safety of therapeutic agents.

CBME-Based Pharmacology for UnderGrads

The curriculum in pharmacology has witnessed a change from dispensing pharmacy-based curriculum to an “applied” approach, where the emphasis is on how the student prescribes rationally, taking into view the various facets of the medicine and the patient. Traditional pharmacology education has been criticized for failing to prepare students for medical practise or to teach students how to use medications safely and rationally. The mention of these in the textbooks is perfunctory. The need for a change to a competency-based curriculum was thus felt worldwide, and hence, the new CBME Curriculum has emphasized the below-mentioned competencies for an undergraduate student.

• Be able to recognize common drug formulations, appreciate their benefits and drawbacks, and choose the best one for a specific illness.
• Be familiar with the national essential drugs list, the criteria used to create it, its benefits, and how to utilise it in practise.
• Select personal or P-drugs for common conditions and make a proper prescription for a specific patient.
• Be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of pharmaceutical promotion and be able to appropriately respond to them.
• Recognize commercial and non-commercial sources of drug information and use them to stay current and prescribe medications.
• Be aware of the dangers of misusing drugs in general, and antimicrobials in particular. Be able to analyze prescriptions using the WHO prescribing indicators and be able to use the same as a guide to their own prescribing behaviour.
• Communicate relevant drug and nondrug information about common diseases to patients in order to ensure drug therapy compliance.
• Be able to recognise, track, and report negative medication reactions.
• Understand the need of calculating medicine doses and determining accurate drug doses when necessary.
• Be able to advise patients on proper drug administration, including the use of specific equipment, as well as proper storage and disposal of medications.

Pharmacology for UnderGrads

Pharmacology for UnderGrads clarifies fundamental principles and keeps students up to date on the latest developments. It is one of the best online Pharmacology courses since the modules are aligned with the standard pharmacology textbook, making it easy for students to follow an organized approach.

The CBME curriculum has recently changed to emphasize the integration of all topics as well as the students’ clinical skills. The relevance of application-based learning has been emphasized in CBME, and the test questions are structured to measure students’ clinical knowledge. This course has well-integrated this unique way of studying the subject.

Pharmacology for UnderGrads was created under the guidance of Dr. Sandeep Kaushal and Dr. Nirmal George to make Pharmacology an exciting and entertaining trip without the need to memorize every drug and categorization. The faculty has discussed the art of studying pharmacology, including how to prepare for the theory, practical, and NEET/NEXT PG Exams.

The lectures are well-illustrated with pertinent visuals, flowcharts, tables, and boxes to help viewers grasp and recall information fast. The lectures’ animations assist students in connecting concepts to their daily lives. Each topic is supported by pharmacological notes and MCQs that serve as a revision aid. Additionally, each section is added with relevant questions with answer keys for self-assessment.

The Course Includes:

• Video Lectures: The course is enhanced by 70 hours of video lecture series.
• Lecture Notes: 77+ lecture notes assist students in speedy revision.
• Practicals: All of the necessary practicals have been covered to assist students in preparing for practicals and vivas.
• Self-Assessment Questions: 1500+ pharmacology MCQs with appropriate explanations are provided.

 Table of Content – Pharmacology for UnderGrads

General Pharmacology

Rational Prescribing

Routes of Drug Administration

Factors Modifying Drug Action

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Autonomic Nervous System

Adrenergic System: Actions & Endogenous Agents

Adrenergic System: Adrenergic Agonists

Adrenergic System: Adrenergic Antagonists

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Autocoids

Prostaglandins

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Respiratory System

Bronchial Asthma

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Hormones & Related Drugs

Pharmacotherapy of Diabetes Mellitus: Introduction

Pharmacotherapy of Diabetes Mellitus: Antidiabetic drugs

Pharmacotherapy of Diabetes Mellitus: Insulin

Pharmacotherapy of Diabetes Mellitus: Ketoacidosis

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PNS

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CNS

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Alcohols

Pharmacotherapy of Depression-1

Pharmacotherapy of Depression-2

Parkinson’s Disease

Antimania drugs

Anti-Psychotic Drugs

Opioids 1

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CVS

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Renal System

Diuretics

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Blood and blood formation

Anticoagulants-I

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GIT

Pharmacotherapy of Peptic Ulcer

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Antimicrobials

Aminoglycosides

Anti-retroviral drugs

β-Lactam Antibiotics: Penicillin

Beta Lactam Antibiotics: Cephalosporins Carbapenems & Monobactam

Fluoroquinolones

Sulphonamides Antifolate Drugs

Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol

Macrolides

Anti-Leprosy Drugs

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Neoplastic Drugs

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Ocular Pharmacology

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Miscellaneous

Drug Development and Clinical Trials

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Qbank

General Pharmacological Principles

Drugs Acting on Autonomic nervous System

Autacoids and Related Drugs

Respiratory System Drugs

Hormones and Related Drugs

Drugs Acting on Peripheral (Somatic) nervous System

Drugs Acting on Central Nervous System

Cardiovascular Drugs

Drugs Acting on Kidney

Drugs Affecting Blood and Blood Formation

Gastrointestinal Drugs

Antimicrobial Drugs

Chemotherapy of Neoplastic Diseases

Miscellaneous Drugs

 Mistakes to avoid while studying Pharmacology

• Ignoring the taxonomy of significant drug families would be a big mistake.
• Undirected learning without a clear understanding of the purpose of reading a topic is a complete waste of time.
• Nausea and vomiting are surely the most common pharmacological side effects, however, it is highly necessary to focus on specific ones.
• Not placing enough emphasis on recalling the mechanism of action of a specific family of a drug.
• Reading dense notes with numerous references to diverse research that have no therapeutic application must be avoided.
• Relying primarily on books while ignoring other resources such as videos, flowcharts, and so on.
• Not practising enough MCQs and focusing only on the theoretical part instead of clinical discussions.

Easiest Way to Learn Pharmacology

1. Choose the right reference material – After you’ve attended all of your lectures, you’ll require a lot of revision material. The ideal method would be to approach pharmacology books with MCQs, keynotes, and simple graphics. Apart from textbooks, watch CBME-based Pharmacology videos that aim to provide conceptual clarity.
2. Take Good Notes — To avoid forgetting about a large number of medications in Pharmacology, take legible and informative notes during all of your lectures so that you may refer to them later. While writing improves memory, having visually appealing notes increases your chances of recalling concepts quickly throughout the exam. Organize the topics using flowcharts, tables, graphs, and graphics.
3. Test your knowledge with your buddy – Keep assessing your knowledge whenever you are with your friends. This will ensure that you are on the same page as them and will help you to know the different techniques your friends use to remember the vast amount of drugs.
4. Break down drugs by indication and class – Sort medications by what they’re used for, and then by their class. Indications, contraindications, and other characteristics of medications in the same class are often the same. Learn them in general terms; you can always return to your CPGs for specifics, but you must first know what to use. Also, while learning the physically equivalent system (respiratory drugs/cardiovascular drugs, etc.), learn pharmacological actions.
5. Create your chart – Make a chart in alphabetical order and read it over and over again. The chart must include the drug name, the generic names, the dosages, the indications, the contraindications, as well as the mechanism of action, the drug type, and diseases or conditions it is given for.
6. Practise Previous Years’ Question Papers –Solving previous years’ question papers is crucial in pharmacology. This can serve as a fantastic pre-exam practise test while also teaching you exam patterns and questioning techniques. By attempting as many questions as possible, you can get familiar with the test format and the important topics that are asked most often in the exam.
7. Find a teaching methodology that works for you – If you need comprehensive understanding, leave some time for self-assessment daily. If you want to make learning interesting, DigiNerve’s Pharmacology for UnderGrads course adopts a CBME-based approach. Access video lectures, MCQs, notes, IBQs, and VBQs to stimulate visual memory.

 Scope of Pharmacology

Pharmacologists must have a strong foundation in physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, and molecular biology to gain specific expertise and experimental methodologies for studying areas of drug action. Such study could focus on molecular interactions, cellular and subcellular signal transduction pathways, tissue and organ regulation, as well as integrated physiological or behavioural responses in organisms. The knowledge gathered assists in the development of novel medications as well as rational therapies, which entail the safe and effective use of drugs for therapeutic purposes. Furthermore, pharmacologists’ interdisciplinary knowledge provides them with a unique perspective on several biomedical difficulties, as well as improved employment opportunities in a variety of scientific domains.

Here are some professions to consider:

• Academic Researcher
• Biomedical Scientist
• Clinical Research Associate Clinical Scientist- Biochemistry
• Clinical Scientist- Immunology
• Medicinal Chemist
• Pharmacologist
• Research Scientist (Life Sciences)
• Research Scientist (Medical)
• Scientific Laboratory Technician
• Community Pharmacist
• Higher Education Lecturer
• Medical Sales Representative
• Medical Science Liaison
• Neuroscientist
• Patent Attorney
• Regulatory Affairs Officer
• Science Writer

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Q1. What are the types of pharmacology?

Ans. Pharmacology has two major branches:

• Pharmacokinetics is the study of how medications are absorbed, distributed, metabolised, and excreted.
• Pharmacodynamics includes a pharmacological mechanism of action, refers to the molecular, biochemical, and physiological impacts of medications.

Q2. What is the difference between pharmacology and pharmacy?

Ans. A drug can be broadly described as any human-made, natural, or endogenous chemical, and pharmacology is the discipline of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug activity. The science and art of making and dispensing medications studied and created by pharmacologists is known as pharmacy.

Q3. How can I become a pharmacologist?

Ans. Pharmacologists need an advanced degree such as a Ph. D., Pharm. D., or M.D. Students who want to work in clinical pharmacology should have a medical degree.

Q4. What is the scope of studying Pharmacology?

A degree in pharmacology can lead to research positions in academia, industry, scientific civil service, and hospitals. You can work as a liaison between pharmaceutical corporations, doctors, and patients. Besides, product management or areas such as marketing and medical information are also approached.

Ophthalmology is a medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases and their complications. Ophthalmology, once considered a minor discipline, has recently expanded to include a variety of subspecialties such as the cornea, pediatric ophthalmology, ocular oncology, glaucoma, ocular pathology, and neuro-ophthalmology.

Studying ophthalmology according to the previous syllabus made it difficult for students to figure out which topics they should emphasize more, how to organize their studies, what practical aspects/skills to know and acquire, and so on. The new CBME Curriculum focuses on core competencies and outlines the learning domain as well as the depth to which a concept should be explored. The AETCOM Module, which stands for Attitude Ethics and Communication, defines the competencies on which the curriculum is built. This is in place to ensure that graduates have the skills they need to meet patients’ needs in society.

DigiNerve’s Ophthalmology for UnderGrads has been conceptualized and designed in accordance with the new CBME curriculum. The aim is to help MBBS students get conceptual clarity and farewell in university exams as well as PG entrance exams. Dr. Parul Ichhpujani and Dr. Talvir Sidhu, the eminent faculty for this course, have addressed all of the subject’s essential aspects in their CBME-oriented Ophthalmology Course. This is one of the best online ophthalmology courses since it aims to provide students with specific competencies more effectively.

Some of the major books authored by Dr. Parul Ichhpujani are “Expert Techniques in Ophthalmic Surgery”, “Clinical Cases in Glaucoma: An Evidence-Based Approach”, and “Manual of Glaucoma”, while Dr. Talvir Sidhu is renowned for her book “Gonioscopy: A Text and Atlas” and “Gonioscopy: A video-assisted Skill Transfer Approach” (includes interactive DVD-ROM).

The faculty has covered the art of studying ophthalmology in order to prepare students for theory, practical, and NEET PG examinations. The orientation video itself provides them with a road map to approach the subject. This online ophthalmology course is designed to help MBBS students in strengthening the basics of Ophthalmology by providing them with advanced clinical vignettes. This provides clinical orientation to the subject.

Each topic includes an overview of the anatomy and physiology of that part, which will serve as a refresher for students. It will also assist them in comprehending the aetiology of various disorders, as well as providing a full description of how each ailment would manifest on ocular inspection. In this Online Ophthalmology Course, basic history-taking and clinical examination of the eye are demonstrated as an extended lecture to provide students with a full overview. The lectures are well-illustrated with clinical and radiological pictures, as well as flowcharts, tables, and boxes to enhance the visual memory of the students.

The Course Includes:

• Video Lectures: 21+ hrs of video lecture series that give you an edge over others.
• Lecture Notes: 33 lecture notes including simple advanced-case vignettes to enhance knowledge during preparation.
• Clinical Case-Based Discussion: The course includes various practical case scenarios which are usually not given in textbooks.
• Self-Assessment Questions: 1000+ practice questions are provided with relevant explanations

DigiNerve’s Ophthalmology for UnderGrads- Table of Content

Ocular Examination

Basic History And Ocular Examination

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Visual acuity

Vision assessment

Refractive Errors

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Extraocular muscles and Ocular motility

Strabismus to Amblyopia

Extraocular Muscles -Strabismus

Nerve Palsies

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Lids and Adnexa

Lid and Adnexal Disorders-1

Lid and Adnexal Disorders-2

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Orbit

Proptosis, Orbital Cellulitis and Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis

Orbital Tumors

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Conjunctiva

Red Eye